Books: The Koran

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1 Vide Reland. de Relig. oh. p. 25. 2 Vide Gol. ubi sup. p.
178. Maimon. præf. in Seder Zeraim, p. 57.
3 Vide Smith, de Moribus et Instit. Turcar. p. 58. 4 Hyde, His. Rel.
Vet. Pers. p. 14. 1 Vide Buxtorf. Lexicon Rabbin.

called Gematria;2 the uncertainty of which conjectures sufficiently appears
from their disagreement. Thus, for example, five chapters, one of which is
the second, begin with these letters, A.L.M., which some imagine to stand for
Allah latîf magîd; "GOD is gracious and to be glorified;" or, Ana li minni,
"to me and from me," viz., belongs all perfection, and proceeds all good; or
else for Ana Allah âlam, "I am the most wise GOD," taking the first letter to
mark the beginning of the first word, the second the middle of the second
word, and the third the last of the third word: or for "Allah, Gabriel,
Mohammed," the author, revealer, and preacher of the Korân. Others say that
as the letter A belongs to the lower part of the throat, the first of the
organs of speech; L to the palate, the middle organ; and M to the lips, which
are the last organs; so these letters signify that GOD is the beginning,
middle, and end, or ought to be praised in the beginning, middle, and end of
all our words and actions: or, as the total value of those three letters in
numbers is seventy-one, they signify that in the space of so many years, the
religion preached in the Korân should be fully established. The conjecture of
a learned Christian3 is, at least, as certain as any of the former, who
supposes those letters were set there by the amanuensis, for Amar li Mohammed,
i.e., "at the command of Mohammed," as the five letters prefixed to the
nineteenth chapter seem to be there written by a Jewish scribe, for Cob yaas,
i.e., "thus he commanded."
The Korân is universally allowed to be written with the utmost elegance and
purity of language, in the dialect of the tribe of Koreish, the most noble and
polite of all the Arabians, but with some mixture, though very rarely, or
other dialects. It is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as
the more orthodox believe, and are taught by the book itself, inimitable by
any human pen (though some sectaries have been of another opinion),1 and
therefore insisted on as a permanent miracle, greater than that of raising the
dead,2 and alone sufficient to convince the world of its divine original.
And to this miracle did Mohammed himself chiefly appeal for the
confirmation of his mission, publicly challenging the most eloquent men in
Arabia, which was at that time stocked with thousands whose sole study and
ambition it was to excel in elegance of style and composition,3 to produce
even a single chapter that might be compared with it.4 I will mention but one
instance out of several, to show that this book was really admired for the
beauty of its composure by those who must be allowed to have been competent
judges. A poem of Labîd Ebn Rabîa, one of the greatest wits in Arabia in
Mohammed's time, being fixed up on the gate of the temple of Mecca, an honour
allowed to none but the most esteemed performances, none of the other poets
durst offer anything of their own in competition with it. But the second
chapter of the Korân being fixed up by it soon after, Labîd

2 Vide Ibid. See also Schickardi Bechinat happerushim, p. 62, &c.
3 Golius in append. ad Gram. Erp. p. 182.
1 See after. 2 Ahmed Abd'alhalim, apud Marracc. de Alc. p. 43.
3 A noble writer therefore mistakes the question when he says
these eastern religionists leave their sacred writ the sole standard of
literate performance by extinguishing all true learning. For though they were
destitute of what we call learning, yet they were far from being ignorant, or
unable to compose elegantly in their own tongue. See L. Shaftesbury's
Characteristics, vol. iii. p. 235. 4 Al Ghazâli, apud Poc. Spec. 191.
See Kor. c. 17, and also c. 2, p. 3, and c. II, &c.

himself (then an idolater) on reading the first verses only, was struck with
admiration, and immediately professed the religion taught thereby, declaring
that such words could proceed from an inspired person only. This Labîd was
afterwards of great service to Mohammed, in writing answers to the satires and
invectives that were made on him and his religion by the infidels, and
particularly by Amri al Kais,5 prince of the tribe of Asad,6 and author of one
of those seven famous poems called al Moallakât.7
The style of the Korân is generally beautiful and fluent, especially where
it imitates the prophetic manner and scripture phrases. It is concise and
often obscure, adorned with bold figures after the eastern taste, enlivened
with florid and sententious expressions, and in many places, especially where
the majesty and attributes of GOD are described, sublime and magnificent; of
which the reader cannot but observe several instances, though he must not
imagine the translation comes up to the original, notwithstanding my
endeavours to do it justice.
Though it be written in prose, yet the sentences generally conclude in a
long continued rhyme, for the sake of which the sense is often interrupted,
and unnecessary repetitions too frequently made, which appear still more
ridiculous in a translation, where the ornament, such as it is, for whose sake
they were made, cannot be perceived. However, the Arabians are so mightily
delighted with this jingling, that they employ it in their most elaborate
compositions, which they also embellish with frequent passages of, and
allusions to, the Korân, so that it is next to impossible to understand them
without being well versed in this book.
It is probable the harmony of expression which the Arabians find in the
Korân might contribute not a little to make them relish the doctrine therein
taught, and give an efficacy to arguments which, had they been nakedly
proposed without this rhetorical dress, might not have so easily prevailed.
Very extraordinary effects are related of the power of words well chosen and
artfully placed, which are no less powerful either to ravish or amaze than
music itself; wherefore as much has been ascribed by the best orators to this
part of rhetoric as to any other.1 He must have a very bad ear who is not
uncommonly moved with the very cadence of a well-turned sentence; and Mohammed
seems not to have been ignorant of the enthusiastic operation of rhetoric on
the minds of men; for which reason he has not only employed his utmost skill
in these his pretended revelations, to preserve the dignity and sublimity of
style, which might seem not unworthy of the majesty of that Being, whom he
gave out to be the author of them; and to imitate the prophetic manner of the
Old Testament; but he has not neglected even the other arts of oratory;
wherein he succeeded so well, and so strangely captivated the minds of his
audience, that several of his opponents thought it the effect of witchcraft
and enchantment, as he sometimes complains.2
"The general design of the Korân" (to use the words of a very learned
person) "seems to be this. To unite the professors of the

5 D'Herbel. Bibl. Orient. p. 512, &c. 6 Poc. Spec. p. 80.
7 See before, p. 22. 1 See Casaubon, of Enthusiasm, c. 4.
2 Kor. c. 15, 21, &c.

three different religions then followed in the populous country of Arabia, who
for the most part lived promiscuously, and wandered without guides, the far
greater number being idolaters, and the rest Jews and Christians, mostly of
erroneous and heterodox belief, in the knowledge and worship of one eternal,
invisible GOD, by whose power all things were made, and those which are not,
may be, the supreme Governor, Judge, and absolute Lord of the creation;
established under the sanction of certain laws, and the outward signs of
certain ceremonies, partly of ancient and partly of novel institution, and
enforced by setting before them rewards and punishments, both temporal and
eternal; and to bring them all to the obedience of Mohammed, as the prophet
and ambassador of GOD, who after the repeated admonitions, promises, and
threats of former ages, was at last to establish and propagate GOD'S religion
on earth by force of arms, and to be acknowledged chief pontiff in spiritual
matters, as well as supreme prince in temporal."1
The great doctrine then of the Korân is the unity of GOD; to restore which
point Mohammed pretended was the chief end of his mission; it being laid down
by him as a fundamental truth, that there never was nor ever can be more than
one true orthodox religion. For though the particular laws or ceremonies are
only temporary, and subject to alteration according to the divine direction,
yet the substance of it being eternal truth, is not liable to change, but
continues immutably the same. And he taught that whenever this religion
became neglected, or corrupted in essentials, GOD had the goodness to re-
inform and re-admonish mankind thereof, by several prophets, of whom Moses and
Jesus were the most distinguished, till the appearance of Mohammed, who is
their seal, no other being to be expected after him. And the more effectually
to engage people hearken to him, great part of the Korân is employed in
relating examples of dreadful punishments formerly inflicted by God on those
who rejected and abused his messengers; several of which stories of some
circumstances of them are taken from the Old and New Testament, but many more
from the apocryphal books and traditions of the Jews and Christians of those
ages, set up in the Korân as truths in opposition to the scriptures, which the
Jews and Christians are charged with having altered; and I am apt to believe
that few or none of the relations or circumstances in the Korân were invented
by Mohammed, as is generally supposed, it being easy to trace the greater part
of them much higher, as the rest might be, were more of the books extant, and
it was worth while to make the inquiry.
The other part of the Korân is taken up in giving necessary laws and
directions, in frequent admonitions to moral and divine virtues, and above all
to the worshipping and reverencing of the only true GOD, and resignation to
his will; among which are many excellent things intermixed not unworthy even a
Christian's perusal.
But besides these, there are a great number of passages which are
occasional, and relate to particular emergencies. For whenever anything
happened which perplexed and gravelled Mohammed, and

1 Golius. in appen. ad Gram. Erp. p. 176.

which he could not otherwise get over, he had constant recourse to a new
revelation, as an infallible expedient in all nice cases; and he found the
success of this method answer his expectation. It was certainly an admirable
and politic contrivance of his to bring down the whole Korân at once to the
lowest heaven only, and not to the earth, as a bungling prophet would probably
have done; for if the whole had been published at once, innumerable objections
might have been made, which it would have been very hard, if not impossible,
for him to solve: but as he pretended to have received it by parcels, as GOD
saw proper that they should be published for the conversion and instruction of
the people, he had a sure way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate
himself with honour from any difficulty which might occur. If any objection
be hence made to that eternity of the Korân, which the Mohammedans are taught
to believe, they easily answer it by their doctrine of absolute
predestination; according to which all the accidents for the sake of which
these occasional passages were revealed, were predetermined by GOD from all
eternity.
That Mohammed was really the author and chief contriver of the Korân is
beyond dispute; though it be highly probably that he had no small assistance
in his design from others, as his countrymen failed not to object to him;1
however, they differed so much in their conjectures as to the particular
persons who gave him such assistance,2 that they were not able, it seems, to
prove the charge; Mohammed, it is to be presumed, having taken his measures
too well to be discovered. Dr. Prideaux3 has given the most probably account
of this matter, though chiefly from Christian writers, who generally mix such
ridiculous fables with what they deliver, that they deserve not much credit.
However, it be, the Mohammedans absolutely deny the Korân was composed by
their prophet himself, or any other for him; it being their general and
orthodox belief that it is of divine original, any, that it is eternal and
uncreated, remaining, as some express it, in the very essence of GOD; that the
first transcript has been from everlasting by GOD'S throne, written on a
tablet of vast bigness, called the preserved table, in which are also recorded
the divine decrees past and future: that a copy from this table, in one volume
on paper, was by the ministry of the angel Gabriel sent down to the lowest
heaven, in the month of Ramadân, on the night of power;4 from whence Gabriel
revealed it to Mohammed by parcels, some at Mecca, and some at Medina, at
different times, during the space of twenty-three years, as the exigency of
affairs required; giving him, however, the consolation to show him the whole
(which they tell us was bound in silk, and adorned with gold and precious
stones of paradise) once a year; but in the last year of his life he had the
favour to see it twice. They say that few chapters were delivered entire, the
most part being revealed piecemeal, and written down form time to time by the
prophet's amanuenses in such or such a part of such or such a chapter till
they were completed, according to the directions of the angel.1 The first
parcel that was

1 Vide Kor. c. 16, and c. 25. 2 See the notes on those passages.
3 Life of Mahomet, p. 31, &c.
4 Vide Kor. c. 97, and note ibid. 1 Therefore it is a mistake of Dr.
Prideaux to say it was brought him chapter by chapter. Life of Mahomet, p. 6.
The Jews also say the Law was given to Moses by parcels. Vide Millium, de
Mohammedismo ante Moham. p. 365.

revealed, is generally agreed to have ben the first five verses of the ninety-
sixth chapter.2
After the new revealed passages had been from the prophet's mouth taken
down in writing by his scribe, they were published to his followers, several
of whom took copies for their private use, but the far greater number got them
by heart. The originals when returned were put promiscuously into a chest,
observing no order of time, for which reason it is uncertain when many
passages were revealed.
When Mohammed died, he left his revelations in the same disorder I have
mentioned, and not digest into the method, such as it is, which we now find
them in. This was the work of his successor, Abu Becr, who considering that a
great number of passages were committed to the memory of Mohammed's followers,
many of whom were slain in their wars, ordered the whole to be collected, not
only from the palm-leaves and skins on which they had been written, and which
were kept between two boards or covers, but also from the mouths of such as
had gotten them by heart. And this transcript when completed he committed to
the custody of Hafsa the daughter of Omar, one of the prophet's widows.3
From this relation it is generally imagined that Abu Becr was really the
compiler of the Korân; though for aught appears to the contrary, Mohammed left
the chapters complete as we now have them, excepting such passages as his
successor might add or correct from those who had gotten them by heart; what
Abu Becr did else being perhaps no more than to range the chapters in their
present order, which he seems to have done without any regard to time, having
generally placed the longest first.
However, in the thirtieth year of the Hejra, Othmân being then Khalîf, and
observing the great disagreement in the copies of the Korân in the several
provinces of the empire-those of Irak, for example, following the reading of
Abu Musa al Ashari, and the Syrians that of Macdâd Ebn Aswad-he, by advice of
the companions, ordered a great number of copies to be transcribed from that
of Abu Becr, in Hafsa's care, under the inspection of Zeid Ebn Thabet,
Abd'allah Ebn Zobair, Saïd Ebn al As, and Abd'alrahmân Ebn al Hâreth, the
Makhzumite; whom he directed that wherever they disagreed about any word, they
should write it in the dialect of the Koreish, in which it was first
delivered.1 These copies when made were dispersed in the several provinces of
the empire, and the old ones burnt and suppressed. Though many things in
Hafsa's copy were corrected by the above-mentioned supervisors, yet some
various readings still occur; the most material of which will be taken notice
of in their proper places.
The want of vowels2 in the Arabic character made Mokrîs, or readers whose
peculiar study and profession it was to read the Korân with its proper vowels,
absolutely necessary. But these differing in their

2 Not the whole chapter, as Golius says. Append. ad Gr. Erp. p. 180.
3 Elmacin. in Vita Abu Becr. Abulfeda.
1 Abulfeda, in Vitis Abubecr and Othmân. 2 The characters or marks of
the Arabic vowels were not used till several years after Mohammed. Some
ascribe the invention of them to Yahya Ebn Yâmer, some to Nasr Ebn Asam,
surnamed al Leithi, and others to Abu'laswad al Dîli-all three of whom were
doctors of Basra, and immediately succeeded the companions. See D'Herbel.
Bibl. Orient. p. 87.

manner of reading, occasioned still further variations in the copies of the
Korân, as they are now written with the vowels; and herein consist much the
greater part of the various readings throughout the book. The readers whose
authority the commentators chiefly allege, in admitting these various
readings, are seven in number.
There being some passages in the Korân which are contradictory, the
Mohammedan doctors obviate any objection from thence by the doctrine of
abrogation; for they say, that GOD in the Korân commanded several things which
were for good reasons afterwards revoked and abrogated.
Passages abrogated are distinguished into three kinds: the first where the
letter and the sense are both abrogated; the second, where the letter only is
abrogated, but the sense remains; and the third, where the sense is abrogated,
though the letter remains.
Of the first kind were several verses, which, by the tradition of Malec Ebn
Ans, were in the prophet's lifetime read in the chapter of Repentance, but are
not now extant, one of which, being all he remembered of them, was the
following: "If a son of Adam had two rivers of gold, he would covet yet a
third; and if he had three, he would covet yet a fourth (to be added) unto
them; neither shall the belly of a son of Adam be filled, but with dust. GOD
will turn unto him who shall repent." Another instance of this kind we have
from the tradition of Abd'allah Ebn Masûd, who reported that the prophet gave
him a verse to read which he wrote down; but the next morning looking in his
book, he found it was vanished, and the leaf blank: this he acquainted
Mohammed with, who assured him the verse was revoked the same night.
Of the second kind is a verse called the verse of stoning, which, according
to the tradition of Omar, afterwards Khalîf, was extant while Mohammed was
living, though it be not now to be found. The words are these: "Abhor not
your parents, for this would be ingratitude in you. If a man and woman of
reputation commit adultery, ye shall stone them both; it is a punishment
ordained by GOD; for GOD is mighty and wise."
Of the last kind are observed several verses in sixty-three different
chapters, to the number of 225. Such as the precepts of turning in prayer to
Jerusalem; fasting after the old custom; forbearance towards idolaters;
avoiding the ignorant, and the like.1 The passages of this sort have been
carefully collected by several writers, and are most of them remarked in their
proper places.
Though it is the belief of the Sonnites or orthodox that the Korân is
uncreated and eternal, subsisting in the very essence of GOD, and Mohammed
himself is said to have pronounced him an infidel who asserted the contrary,2
yet several have been of a different opinion; particularly the sect of the
Mótazalites,3 and the followers of Isa Ebn Sobeih Abu Musa, surnamed al
Mozdâr, who struck not to accuse those who held the Korân to be uncreated of
infidelity, as asserters of two eternal beings.4
This point was controverted with so much heat that it occasioned

1 Abu Hashem Hebatallah, apud Marracc. de Alc. p. 42. 2 Apud Poc.
Spec. 220. 3 See after, in Sect. VIII. 4 Vide Poc. Spec. p.
219, &c.

many calamities under some of the Khalîfs of the family of Abbâs, al Mamûn5
making a public edict declaring the Korân to be created, which was confirmed
by his successors Al Mótasem6 and Al Wâthek,7 who whipped, imprisoned, and put
to death those of the contrary opinion. But at length Al Motawakkel,1 who
succeeded Al Wâthek, put an end to these persecutions, by revoking the former
edicts, releasing those that were imprisoned on that account, and leaving
every man at liberty as to his belief in this point.2
Al Ghazâli seems to have tolerably reconciled both opinions, saying, that
the Korân is read and pronounced with the tongue, written in books, and kept
in memory; and is yet eternal, subsisting in GOD'S essence, and not possible
to be separated thence by any transmission into men's memories or the leaves
of books;3 by which he seems to mean no more than that the original idea of
the Korân only is really in GOD, and consequently co-essential and co-eternal
with him, but that the copies are created and the work of man.
The opinion of Al Jahedh, chief of a sect bearing his name, touching the
Korân, is too remarkable to be omitted: he used to say it was a body, which
might sometimes be turned into a man,4 and sometimes into a beast;5 which
seems to agree with the notion of those who assert the Korân to have two
faces, one of a man, the other of a beast;6 thereby, as I conceive, intimating
the double interpretation it will admit of, according to the letter or the
spirit.
As some have held the Korân to be created, so there have not been wanting
those who have asserted that there is nothing miraculous in that book in
respect to style or composition, excepting only the prophetical relations of
things past, and predictions of things to come; and that had GOD left men to
their natural liberty, and not restrained them in that particular, the
Arabians could have composed something not only equal, but superior to the
Korân in eloquence, method, and purity of language. This was another opinion
of the Mótazalites, and in particular of al Mozdâr, above mentioned, and al
Nodhâm.7
The Korân being the Mohammedans' rule of faith and practice, it is no
wonder its expositors and commentators are so very numerous. And it may not
be amiss to take notice of the rules they observe in expounding it.
One of the most learned commentators1 distinguishes the contents of the
Korân into allegorical and literal. The former comprehends the more obscure,
parabolical, and enigmatical passages, and such as

5 Anno Hej. 218. Abulfarag, p. 245, v. etiam Elmacin. in Vita al Mamûn.
6 In the time of al Mótasem, a doctor named Abu Harûn Ebn al Baca found
out a distinction to screen himself, by affirming that the Korân was ordained,
because it is said in that book, "And I have ordained thee the Korân." He
went still farther to allow that what was ordained was created, and yet he
denied it thence followed that the Korân was created. Abulfarag, p. 253.
7 Ibid. p. 257. 1 Anno Hej. 242. 2 Abulfarag, p. 262.
3 Al Ghazâli, in prof. fid. 4 The Khalîf al Walîd Ebn Yazîd,
who was the eleventh of the race of Emmeya, and is looked on by the
Mohammedans as a reprobate, and one of no religion, seems to have treated this
book as a rational creature; for, dipping into it one day, the first words he
met with were these: "Every rebellious perverse person shall not prosper."
Whereupon he stuck it on a lance, and shot it to pieces with arrows, repeating
these verses: "Dost thou rebuke every rebellious perverse person? Behold, I
am that rebellious, perverse person. When thou appearest before thy LORD on
the day of resurrection, say, O LORD, al Walîd has torn me thus." Ebn
Shohnah. v. Poc. Spec. p. 223.
5 Poc. Spec. p. 222. 6 Herbelot, p. 87. 7 Abulfeda,
Shahrestani, &c. apud Poc. Spec. p. 222, et Marracc. de Kor. p. 44.
1 Al Kamakhshari. Vide Kor. c. 3.

are repealed or abrogated; the latter those which are plain, perspicuous,
liable to no doubt, and in full force.
To explain these severally in a right manner, it is necessary from
tradition and study to know the time when each passage was revealed, its
circumstances, state, and history, and the reasons or particular emergencies
for the sake of which it was revealed.2 Or, more explicitly, whether the
passage was revealed at Mecca, or at Medina; whether it be abrogated, or does
itself abrogate any other passage; whether it be anticipated in order of time,
or postponed; whether it be distinct from the context, or depends thereon;
whether it be particular or general; and, lastly, whether it be implicit by
intention, or explicit in words.3
By what has been said the reader may easily believe this book is in the
greatest reverence and esteem among the Mohammedans. They dare not so much as
touch it without being first washed or legally purified;4 which, lest they
should do by inadvertence, they write these words on the cover or label, "Let
none touch it but they who are clean." They read it with great care and
respect, never holding it below their girdles. They swear by it, consult it
in their weighty occasions,5 carry it with them to war, write sentences of it
on their banners, adorn it with gold and precious stones, and knowingly suffer
it not to be in the possession of any of a different persuasion.
The Mohammedans, far from thinking the Korân to be profaned by a
translation, as some authors have written,6 have taken care to have their
scriptures translated not only into the Persian tongue, but into several
others, particularly the Javan and Malayan,7 though out of respect to the
original Arabic, these versions are generally (if not always) intermediary.