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Emile Zola - "The Three Cities Trilogy: Paris, Vol. 4"

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Books: The Koran

U >> Unknown >> The Koran




1 Al Ghazâli. Vide ibid. p. 198-204. 2 Vide ibid. p. 204.
3 Vide Abulfarag, Hist. Dynast. p. 166.
4 Al Shahrestani, apud Poc. ubi. sup. p. 204, &c. 5 Idem, ibid.
p.205. 1 Idem, ibid. p. 206.
2 Idem, ibid.



sorts; those generally esteemed orthodox, and those which are esteemed
heretical.
The former, by a general name, are called Sonnites or Traditionists;
because they acknowledge the authority of the Sonna, or collection of moral
traditions of the sayings and actions of their prophet, which is a sort of
supplement to the Korân, directing the observance of several things omitted in
that book, and in name, as well as design, answering to the Mishna of the
Jews.3
The Sonnites are subdivided into four chief sects, which, notwithstanding
some differences as to legal conclusions in their interpretation of the Korân,
and matters of practice, are generally acknowledge to be orthodox in radicals,
or matters of faith, and capable of salvation, and have each of them their
several stations or oratories in the temple of Mecca.4 The founders of these
sects are looked upon as the great masters of jurisprudence, and are said to
have been men of great devotion and self-denial, well versed in the knowledge
of those things which belong to the next life and to man's right conduct here,
and directing all their knowledge to the glory of GOD. This is al Ghazâli's
encomium of them, who thinks it derogatory to their honour that their names
should be used by those who, neglecting to imitate the other virtues which
make up their character, apply themselves only to attain their skill, and
follow their opinions in matters of legal practice.1
The first of the four orthodox sects is that of the Hanefites, so named
from their founder, Abu Hanîfa al Nómân Ebn Thâbet, who was born at Cufa, in
the 80th year of the Hejra, and died in the 150th, according to the more
preferable opinion as to the time.2 He ended his life in prison at Baghdâd,
where he had been confined because he refused to be made Kâdi or judge;3 on
which account he was very hardly dealt with by his superiors, yet could not be
prevailed on, either by threats or ill-treatment, to undertake the charge,
"choosing rather to be punished by them than by GOD," says Al Ghazâli; who
adds, that when he excused himself from accepting the office by alleging that
he was unfit for it, being asked the reason, he replied, "If I speak the
truth, I am unfit; but if I tell a lie, a liar is not fit to be a judge." It
is said that he read the Korân in the prison where he died, no less than 7,000
times.4
The Hanefites are called by an Arabian writer5 the followers of reason, and
those of the three other sects, followers of tradition; the former being
principally guided by their own judgment in their decisions, and the latter
adhering more tenaciously to the traditions of Mohammed.
The sect of Abu Hanîfa heretofore obtained chiefly in Irâk,6 but now
generally prevails among the Turks and Tartars: his doctrine was brought into
great credit by Abu Yûsof, chief justice under the Khalîfs al Hâdi and Harûn
al Rashîd.7

3 Vide Poc. Spec. p. 298. Prid. Life of Mahomet, p. 51, &c. Reland. de
Rel. Moh. p. 68, &c. Millium, de Mohammedismo ante Moh. p. 368, 369.
4 See before, p. 90. 1 Vide Poc. Spec. p. 293. 2 Ebn
Khalecân.
3 This was the true cause of his imprisonment and death, and not his
refusing to subscribe to the opinion of absolute predestination, as D'Herbelot
writes (Bibl. Orient. p. 21), misled by the dubious acceptation of the word
"kadâ," which signifies not only GOD'S decree in particular, but also the
giving sentence as a judge in general; nor could Abu Hanîfa have been reckoned
orthodox had he denied one of the principal articles of faith. 4
Poc. Spec. p. 297, 298. 5 Al Shahrestani, ibid.
6 Idem. 7 Vide D'Herbel. Bibl. Orient. p. 21 and 22.



The second orthodox sect is that of Mâlec Ebn Ans, who was born at Medina,
in the year of the Hejra 90, 93, 94,8 or 95,9 and died there in 177,10 178,11 or
17912 (for so much do authors differ). This doctor is said to have paid great
regard to the traditions of Mohammed.13 In his last illness, a friend going
to visit him found him in tears, and asking him the reason of it, he answered,
"How should I not weep? and who has more reason to weep than I? Would to GOD
that for every question decided by me according to my own opinion, I had
received so many stripes! then would my accounts be easier. Would to GOD I
had never given any decision of my own!"1 Al Ghazâli thinks it a sufficient
proof of Malec's directing his knowledge to the glory of GOD, that being once
asked his opinion as to forty-eight questions, his answer to thirty-two of
them was, that he did not know; it being no easy matter for one who has any
other view than God's glory to make so frank a confession of his ignorance.2
The doctrine of Malec is chiefly followed in Barbary and other parts of
Africa.
The author of the third orthodox sect was Mohammed Ebn Edrîs al Shâfeï,
born either at Gaza or Ascalon, in Palestine, in the year of the Hejra 150,
the same day (as some will have it) that Abu Hanîfa died, and was carried to
Mecca at two years of age, and there educated.3 He died in 204,4 in Egypt,
whither he went about five years before.5 This doctor is celebrated for his
excellency in all parts of learning, and was much esteemed by Ebn Hanbal his
contemporary, who used to say that "he was as the sun to the world, and as
health to the body." Ebn Hanbal, however, had so ill an opinion of al Shâfeï
at first, that he forbad his scholars to go near him; but some time after one
of them, meeting his master trudging on foot after al Shâfeï, who rode on a
mule, asked him how it came about that he forbad them to follow him, and did
it himself? to which Ebn Hanbal replied, "Hold thy peace; if thou but attend
his mule thou wilt profit thereby."6
Al Shâfeï is said to have been the first who discoursed of jurisprudence,
and reduced that science into a method;7 one wittily saying, that the relators
of the traditions of Mohammed were asleep till al Shâfeï came and waked them.8
He was a great enemy to the scholastic divines, as has been already observed.9
Al Ghazâli tells us that al Shâfeï used to divide the night into three parts,
one for study, another for prayer, and the third for sleep. It is also
related of him that he never so much as once swore by GOD, either to confirm a
truth, or to affirm a falsehood; and that being once asked his opinion, he
remained silent for some time, and when the reason of his silence was
demanded, he answered, "I am considering first whether it be better to speak
or to hold my tongue." The following saying is also recorded of him, viz.,
"Whoever pretends to love the world and its Creator at the same time, is a
liar."1 The followers of this doctor are from him called Shâfeïtes, and were
formerly spread into Mâwara'lnahr and other parts eastward, but are now
chiefly of Arabia and Persia.

8 Abulfeda. 9 Ebn Khalecân. 10 Idem. 11
Abulfeda. 12 Elmacinus, p. 114. 13 Ebn Khalec. Vide Poc.
Spec. p. 294. 1 Idem, apud eund. ibid. 2 Al Ghazâli, ibid.
3 Ebn Khalecân. 4 Yet Abulfeda says he lived fifty-eight years.
5 Ebn Khalecân.
6 Idem. 7 Idem. 8 Al Záfarâni, apud Poc. Spec. p. 296.
9 See before, p. 118.
1 Vide Poc. Spec. 295-297.



Ahmed Ebn Hanbal, the founder of the fourth sect, was born in the year of
the Hejra 164; but as to the place of his birth there are two traditions: some
say he was born at Merû in Khorasân, of which city his parents were, and that
his mother brought him from thence to Baghdâd at her breast; while others
assure us that she was with child of him when she came to Baghdâd, and that he
was born there.2 Ebn Hanbal in process of time attained a great reputation on
account of his virtue and knowledge; being so well versed in the traditions of
Mohammed, in particular, that it is said he could repeat no less than a
million of them.3 He was very intimate with al Shâfeï, from whom he received
most of his traditionary knowledge, being his constant attendant till his
departure for Egypt.4 Refusing to acknowledge the Korân to be created,5 he
was, by order of the Khalîf al Mótasem, severely scourged and imprisoned.6
Ebn Hanbal died at Baghdâd, in the year 241, and was followed to his grave by
eight hundred thousand men, and sixty thousand women. It is relate, as
something very extraordinary, if not miraculous, that on the day of his death
no less than twenty thousand Christians, Jews, and Magians, embraced the
Mohammedan faith.7 This sect increased so fast, and became so powerful and
bold, that in the year 323, in the Khalîfat of al Râdi, they raised a great
commotion in Baghdâd, entering people's houses, and spilling their wine, if
they found any, and beating the singing-women they met with, and breaking
their instruments; and a severe edict was published against them, before they
could be reduced to their duty:8 but the Hanbalites at present are not very
numerous, few of them being to be met with out of the limits of Arabia.
The heretical sects among the Mohammedans are those which hold heterodox
opinions in fundamental, or matters of faith.
The first controversies relating to fundamentals began when most of the
companions of Mohammed were dead:9 for in their days was no dispute, unless
about things of small moment, if we except only the dissensions concerning the
Imâms, or rightful successors of their prophet, which were stirred up and
fomented by interest and ambition; the Arabs' continual employment in the
wars, during that time, allowing them little or no leisure to enter into nice
inquiries and subtle distinctions: but no sooner was the ardour of conquest a
little abated than they began to examine the Korân more nearly; whereupon
differences in opinion became unavoidable, and at length so greatly
multiplied, that the number of their sects, according to the common opinion,
are seventy-three. For the Mohammedans seem ambitious that their religion
should exceed others even in this respect; saying, that the Magians are
divided into seventy sects, the Jews into seventy-one, the Christians into
seventy-two, and the Moslems into seventy-three, as Mohammed had foretold;1 of
which sects they reckon one to be always orthodox, and entitled to salvation.2
The first heresy was that of the Khârejites, who revolted from Ali in the
thirty-seventh year of the Hejra; and not long after, Mábad a.

2 Ebn Khalecân. 3 Idem. 4 Idem.
5 See before, Sect. III. p. 53, &c.
6 Ebn Khalecân, Abulfarag, Hist. Dyn. p. 252, &c. 7 Ebn Khalecân.
8 Abulfar. ubi sup. p. 301, &c.
9 Al Shahrestani, apud Poc. Spec. p. 194. Auctor Sharh al Mawâkef, apud
eund. p. 210. 1 Vide Poc. ibid.
2 Al Shahrestani, apud eund. p. 211.



Johni, Ghailân of Damascus, and Jonas al Aswâri broached heterodox opinions
concerning predestination, and the ascribing of good and evil unto GOD; whose
opinions were followed by Wâsel Ebn Atâ.3 This latter was the scholar of
Hasan of Basra, in whose school a question being proposed, whether he who had
committed a grievous sin was to be deemed an infidel or not, the Khârejites
(who used to come and dispute there) maintaining the affirmative, and the
orthodox the negative, Wâsel, without waiting his master's decision, withdrew
abruptly, and began to publish among his fellow-scholars a new opinion of his
own, to wit, that such a sinner was in a middle state; and he was thereupon
expelled the school; he and his followers being thenceforth called
Mótazalites, or Separatists.4
The several sects which have arisen since this time are variously
compounded and decompounded of the opinions of four chief sects, the
Mótazalites, the Sefâtians, the Khârejites, and the Shiites.5
I. The Mótazalites were the followers of the before-mentioned Wâsel Ebn
Atâ. As to their chief and general tenets, I. They entirely rejected all
eternal attributes of GOD, to avoid the distinction of persons made by the
Christians; saying that eternity is the proper or formal attribute of his
essence; that GOD knows by his essence, and not by his knowledge;1 and the
same they affirmed of his other attributes2 (though all the Mótazalites do not
understand these words in one sense); and hence this sect were also named
Moattatlites, from their divesting GOD of his attributes:3 and they went so
far as to say, that to affirm these attributes is the same thing as to make
more eternals than one, and that the unity of GOD is inconsistent with such an
opinion;4 and this was the true doctrine of Wâsel their master, who declared
that whoever asserted an eternal attribute, asserted there were two GODS.5
This point of speculation concerning the divine attributes was not ripe at
first, but was at length brought to maturity by Wâsel's followers, after they
had read the books of the philosophers.6 2. They believed the word of GOD to
have been created in subjecto (as the schoolmen term it), and to consist of
letters and sound; copies thereof being written in books to express or imitate
the original. They also went farther, and affirmed that whatever is created
in subjecto is also an accident, and liable to perish.7 3. They denied
absolute predestination, holding that GOD was not the author of evil, but of
good only; and that man was a free agent:8 which being properly the opinion of
the Kadarians, we defer what may be farther said thereof till we come to speak
of that sect. On account of this tenet and the first, the Móta-

3 Idem, and Auctor Sharh al Mawâkef, ubi sup. 4 Idem, ibid. p.
211, 212, and Ebu Khalecân, in Vita Waseli.
5 Al Shahrestani, who also reduces them to four chief sects, puts the
Kadarians in the place of the Mótazalites. Abulfaragius (Hist. Dyn. p. 166)
reckons six principal sects, adding the Jabarians and the Morgians; and the
author of Sharh al Mawâkef eight, viz., the Mótazalites, the Shiites, the
Khârejites, the Morgians, the Najarians, the Jabarians, the Moshabbehites, and
the sect which he calls al Nâjia, because that alone will be saved, being
according to him the sect of the Asharians. Vide Poc. Spec. p. 209.
1 Maimonides teaches the same, not as the doctrine of the Mótazalites, but
his own. Vide More Nev. l. I, c. 57. 2 Al Shahrestani, apud Poc.
Spec. p. 214. Abulfarag, p. 167. 3 Vide Poc. Spec. 224. 4
Sharh al Mawâkef, and al Shahrest. apud Poc. p. 216. Maimonides (in Proleg ad
Pirke Aboth. § 8) asserts the same thing. 5 Vide Poc. ibid.
6 Al Shahrest. ibid. p. 215. 7 Abulfarag, and al Shahrest. ubi sup. p.
217. See before, Sect. III, p. 112
8 Vide Poc. Spec. p. 240.



zalites look on themselves as the defenders of the unity and justice of GOD.9
4. They held that if a professor of the true religion be guilty of a grievous
sin, and die without repentance, he will be eternally damned, though his
punishment will be lighter than that of the infidels.10 5. They denied all
vision of GOD in paradise by the corporeal eye, and rejected all comparisons
or similitudes applied to GOD.11
This sect are said to have been the first inventors of scholastic
divinity,11 and are subdivided into several inferior sects, amounting, as some
reckon, to twenty, which mutually brand one another with infidelity:13 the
most remarkable of them are:-
I. The Hodeilians, or followers of Hamdân Abu Hodeil, a Mótazalite doctor,
who differed something from the common form of expression used by this sect,
saying that GOD knew by his knowledge, but that his knowledge was his essence;
and so of the other attributes: which opinion he took from the philosophers,
who affirm the essence of GOD to be simple and without multiplicity, and that
his attributes are not posterior or accessory to his essence, or subsisting
therein, but are his essence itself: and this the more orthodox take to be
next kin to making distinctions in the deity, which is the thing they so much
abhor in the Christians.1 As to the Korân's being created, he made some
distinction; holding the word of GOD to be partly not in subjecto (and
therefore uncreated), as when he spake the word Kûn, i.e., Fiat, at the
creation, and partly in subjecto, as the precepts, prohibitions, &c.2
Marracci3 mentions an opinion of Abu Hodeil's concerning predestination, from
an Arab writer,4 which being by him expressed in a manner not very
intelligible, I choose to omit.
2. The Jobbâïans, or followers of Abu Ali Mohammed Ebn Abd al Wahhâb,
surnamed al Jobbâï, whose meaning when he made use of the common expression of
the Mótazalites, that "GOD knows by his essence," &c., was, that GOD'S being
knowing is not an attribute, the same with knowledge, nor such a state as
rendered his being knowing necessary.5 He held GOD'S word to be created in
subjecto, as in the preserved table, for example, the memory of Gabriel,
Mohammed, &c.6 This sect, if Marracci has given the true sense of his author,
denied that GOD could be seen in paradise without the assistance of corporeal
eyes; and held that man produced his acts by a power superadded to health of
body and soundness of limbs; that he who was guilty of a mortal sin was
neither a believer nor an infidel, but a transgressor (which was the original
opinion of Wâsel), and if he died in his sins, would be doomed to hell for
eternity; and that GOD conceals nothing of whatever he knows from his
servants.7
3. The Hashemians, who were so named from their master Abu Hâshem Abd al
Salâm, the son of Abu Ali al Jabbâï, and whose tenets nearly agreed with those
of the preceding sect.8 Abu Hâshem took the Mótazalite form of expression,
that "GOD knows by his essence," in a different sense from others, supposing
it to mean that GOD hath or

9 Al Shahrest. and Sharh al Mawâkef. apud Poc, ubi sup. p. 214.
10 Marracc. Prodr. ad ref. Alcor. part iii. p. 74.
11 Idem, ibid. 12 Vide Poc. Spec. p. 213, and D'Herbel. Art.
Motazelah. 13 Auctor al Mawâkef, apud Poc. ibid. 1 Al
Shahrestani, apud Poc. p. 215, 216, 217. 2 Idem, apud eund. p. 217,
&c.
3 In Prodr. part iii. p. 74. 4 Al Shahrest. 5 Idem, apud Poc.
Spec. p. 215. 6 Idem, and Auctor al Mawâkef, ibid. p. 218.
7 Marracci, ubi sup. p. 75, ex al Shahrest. 8 Vide eund.
ibid.



is endued with a disposition, which is a known property, or quality, posterior
or accessory to his existence.1 His followers were so much afraid of making
GOD the author of evil that they would not allow him to be said to create an
infidel; because, according to their way of arguing, an infidel is a compound
of infidelity and man, and GOD is not the creator of infidelity.2 Abu Hâshem,
and his father Abu Ali al Jobbâï, were both celebrated for their skill in
scholastic divinity.3
4. The Nodhâmians, or followers of Ibrahim al Nodhâm, who having read
books of philosophy, set up a new sect, and imagining he could not
sufficiently remove GOD from being the author of evil, without divesting him
of his power in respect thereto, taught that no power ought to be ascribed to
GOD concerning evil and rebellious actions: but this he affirmed against the
opinion of his own disciples, who allowed that GOD could do evil, but did not,
because of its turpitude.4 Of his opinion as to the Korân's being created we
have spoken elsewhere.5
5. The Hâyetians, so named from Ahmed Ebn Hâyet, who had been of the sect
of the Nodhâmians, but broached some new notions on reading the philosophers.
His peculiar opinions were-I. That Christ was the eternal Word incarnate, and
took a true and real body, and will judge all creatures in the life to come:6
he also farther asserted that there are two GODS or Creators-the one eternal,
viz., the most high GOD, and the other not eternal, viz., Christ7-which
opinion, though Dr. Pocock urges the same as an argument that he did not
rightly understand the Christian mysteries8 is not much different from that of
the Arians and Socinians. 2. That there is successive transmigration of the
soul from one body into another; and that the last body will enjoy the reward
or suffer the punishment due to each soul:9 and, 3. That GOD will be seen at
the resurrection, not with the bodily eyes, but those of the understanding.10
6. The Jâhedhians, or followers of Amru Ebn Bahr, surnamed al Jâhedh, a
great doctor of the Mótazalites, and very much admired for the elegance of his
composures;11 who differed from his brethren in that he imagined the damned
would not be eternally tormented in hell, but would be changed into the nature
of fire, and that the fire would of itself attract them, without any necessity
of their going into it.1 He also taught that if a man believed GOD to be his
Lord, and Mohammed the apostle of GOD, he became one of the faithful, and was
obliged to nothing farther.2 His peculiar opinion as to the Korân has been
taken notice of before.3
7. The Mozdârians, who embraced the opinions of Isa Ebn Sobeih al Mozdâr,
and those very absurd ones: for, besides his notions relating to the Korân,4
he went so directly counter to the opinion of those who abridged GOD of the
power to do evil, that he affirmed it possible for GOD to be a liar and
unjust.5 He also pronounced him to

1 Al Shahrest. apud Poc. p. 215. 2 Idem, ibid. p. 242.
3 Ebn Khalecân, in Vitis Eorum.
4 Al Shahrest. ubi sup. p. 241, 242. Vide Marracc. Prod. part iii. p. 74.
5 See before, Sect. III. p. 53.
6 Al Shahrest. ubi sup. p. 218. Abulfarag, p. 167. 7 Al Shahrest. al
Mawâkef, et Ebn Kossá, apud Poc. ubi sub. p. 219.
8 Vide Poc. ibid 9 Marracc. et al Shahrest. ubi sup. 10
Marracc. ibid. p. 75.
11 Vide D'Herbel. Bibl. Orient. Art. Giahedh. 1 Al Shahrest. ubi sup.
p. 260. 2 Marracc. ubi sup.
3 Sect. III. p. 53. 4 Vide ibid. and p. 52. 5 Al
Shahrest. apud Poc. p. 241.



be an infidel who thrust himself into the supreme government:6 nay, he went so
far as to assert men to be infidels while they said "There is no GOD but GOD,"
and even condemned all the rest of mankind as guilty of infidelity; upon which
Ibrahim Ebn al Sendi asked him whether paradise, whose breadth equals that of
heaven and earth, was created only for him and two or three more who thought
as he did? to which it is said he could return no answer.7
8. The Basharians, who maintained the tenets of Bashar Ebn Mótamer, the
master of al Mozdâr,8 and a principal man among the Mótazalites. He differed
in some things from the general opinion of that sect, carrying man's free
agency to a great excess, making it even independent: and yet he thought God
might doom an infant to eternal punishment, but granted he would be unjust in
so doing. He taught that God is not always obliged to do that which is best,
for, if he pleased, he could make all men true believers. These sectaries
also held that if a man repent of a mortal sin, and afterwards return to it,
he will be liable to suffer the punishment due to the former transgression.9
9. The Thamamians, who follow Thamâma Ebn Bashar, a chief Mótazalite.
Their peculiar opinions were-I. That sinners should remain in hell for ever.
2. That free actions have no producing author. 3. That at the resurrection
all infidels, idolaters, atheists, Jews, Christians, Magians, and heretics
shall be reduced to dust.10
10. The Kadarians, which is really a more ancient name than that of
Mótazalites, Mábad al Johni and his adherents being so called, who disputed
the doctrine of predestination before Wâsel quitted his master:1 for which
reason some use the denomination of Kadarians as more extensive than the
other, and comprehend all the Mótazalites under it.2 This sect deny absolute
predestination, saying that evil and injustice ought not to be attributed to
GOD, but to man, who is a free agent, and may therefore be rewarded or
punished for his actions, which GOD has granted him power either to do or to
be let alone.3 And hence it is said they are called Kadarians, because they
deny al Kadr, or GOD'S absolute decree; though others, thinking it not so
proper to come from Kadr, or Kodrat, i.e., power, because they assert man's
power to act freely.4 Those, however, who give the name of Kadarians to the
Mótazalites are their enemies, for they disclaim it, and give it to their
antagonists the Jabarians, who likewise refuse it as an infamous appellation,5
because Mohammed is said to have declared the Kadarians to be the Magians of
his followers.6 But what the opinion of these Kadarians in Mohammed's time
was, is very uncertain: the Mótazalites say the name belongs to those who
assert predestination, and make GOD the author of good and evil,7 viz., the
Jabarians; but all the other Mohammedan sects agree to fix it on the
Mótazalites, who, they say, are like the Magians in establishing two
principles, light, or GOD, the author of good; and darkness, or the devil, the
author of evil: but this cannot absolutely be said of the Mótazalites,