Books: Leviathan

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Painting Of Fancies No Idolatry:
But Abusing Them To Religious Worship Is
But they inferre from some other places, that it is lawfull
to paint Angels, and also God himselfe: as from Gods walking
in the Garden; from Jacobs seeing God at the top of the ladder;
and from other Visions, and Dreams. But Visions, and Dreams whether
naturall, or supernaturall, are but Phantasmes: and he that painteth
an Image of any of them, maketh not an Image of God, but of his
own Phantasm, which is, making of an Idol. I say not, that to draw
a Picture after a fancy, is a Sin; but when it is drawn, to hold it
for a Representation of God, is against the second Commandement;
and can be of no use, but to worship. And the same may be said
of the Images of Angels, and of men dead; unlesse as Monuments
of friends, or of men worthy remembrance: For such use of an Image,
is not Worship of the Image; but a civill honoring of the Person,
not that is, but that was: But when it is done to the Image
which we make of a Saint, for no other reason, but that we think
he heareth our prayers, and is pleased with the honour wee doe him,
when dead, and without sense, wee attribute to him more than humane power;
and therefore it is Idolatry.

Seeing therefore there is no authority, neither in the Law of Moses,
nor in the Gospel, for the religious Worship of Images, or other
Representations of God, which men set up to themselves; or for the Worship
of the Image of any Creature in Heaven, or Earth, or under the Earth:
And whereas Christian Kings, who are living Representants of God,
are not to be worshipped by their Subjects, by any act, that signifieth
a greater esteem of his power, than the nature of mortall man
is capable of; It cannot be imagined, that the Religious Worship
now in use, was brought into the Church, by misunderstanding
of the Scripture. It resteth therefore, that it was left in it,
by not destroying the Images themselves, in the conversion of
the Gentiles that worshipped them.

How Idolatry Was Left In The Church
The cause whereof, was the immoderate esteem, and prices set upon
the workmanship of them, which made the owners (though converted,
from worshipping them as they had done Religiously for Daemons)
to retain them still in their houses, upon pretence of doing it
in the honor of Christ, of the Virgin Mary, and of the Apostles,
and other the Pastors of the Primitive Church; as being easie,
by giving them new names, to make that an Image of the Virgin Mary,
and of her Sonne our Saviour, which before perhaps was called
the Image of Venus, and Cupid; and so of a Jupiter to make a Barnabas,
and of Mercury a Paul, and the like. And as worldly ambition
creeping by degrees into the Pastors, drew them to an endeavour
of pleasing the new made Christians; and also to a liking of this
kind of honour, which they also might hope for after their decease,
as well as those that had already gained it: so the worshipping
of the Images of Christ and his Apostles, grow more and more Idolatrous;
save that somewhat after the time of Constantine, divers Emperors,
and Bishops, and generall Councells observed, and opposed
the unlawfulnesse thereof; but too late, or too weakly.

Canonizing Of Saints
The Canonizing of Saints, is another Relique of Gentilisme:
It is neither a misunderstanding of Scripture, nor a new invention
of the Roman Church, but a custome as ancient as the Common-wealth
of Rome it self. The first that ever was canonized at Rome,
was Romulus, and that upon the narration of Julius Proculus,
that swore before the Senate, he spake with him after his death,
and was assured by him, he dwelt in Heaven, and was there called
Quirinius, and would be propitious to the State of their new City:
And thereupon the Senate gave Publique Testimony of his Sanctity.
Julius Caesar, and other Emperors after him, had the like Testimony;
that is, were Canonized for Saints; now defined; and is the same
with the Apotheosis of the Heathen.

The Name Of Pontifex
It is also from the Roman Heathen, that the Popes have received
the name, and power of PONTIFEX MAXIMUS. This was the name of him
that in the ancient Common-wealth of Rome, had the Supreme Authority
under the Senate and People, of regulating all Ceremonies,
and Doctrines concerning their Religion: And when Augustus Caesar
changed the State into a Monarchy, he took to himselfe no more
but this office, and that of Tribune of the People, (than is to say,
the Supreme Power both in State, and Religion;) and the succeeding
Emperors enjoyed the same. But when the Emperour Constantine lived,
who was the first that professed and authorized Christian Religion,
it was consonant to his profession, to cause Religion to be regulated
(under his authority) by the Bishop of Rome: Though it doe not appear
they had so soon the name of Pontifex; but rather, that the succeeding
Bishops took it of themselves, to countenance the power they exercised
over the Bishops of the Roman Provinces. For it is not any Priviledge
of St. Peter, but the Priviledge of the City of Rome, which the Emperors
were alwaies willing to uphold; that gave them such authority over
other Bishops; as may be evidently seen by that, that the Bishop
of Constantinople, when the Emperour made that City the Seat
of the Empire, pretended to bee equall to the Bishop of Rome;
though at last, not without contention, the Pope carryed it,
and became the Pontifex Maximus; but in right onely of the Emperour;
and not without the bounds of the Empire; nor any where,
after the Emperour had lost his power in Rome; though it were
the Pope himself that took his power from him. From whence wee may
by the way observe, that there is no place for the superiority
of the Pope over other Bishops, except in the territories whereof
he is himself the Civill Soveraign; and where the Emperour having
Soveraign Power Civill, hath expressely chosen the Pope for the
chief Pastor under himselfe, of his Christian Subjects.

Procession Of Images
The carrying about of Images in Procession, is another Relique
of the Religion of the Greeks, and Romans: For they also carried
their Idols from place to place, in a kind of Chariot, which was
peculiarly dedicated to that use, which the Latines called Thensa,
and Vehiculum Deorum; and the Image was placed in a frame, or Shrine,
which they called Ferculum: And that which they called Pompa,
is the same that now is named Procession: According whereunto,
amongst the Divine Honors which were given to Julius Caesar
by the Senate, this was one, that in the Pompe (or Procession)
at the Circaean games, he should have Thensam & Ferculum,
a sacred Chariot, and a Shrine; which was as much, as to be carried
up and down as a God: Just as at this day the Popes are carried by
Switzers under a Canopie.

Wax Candles, And Torches Lighted
To these Processions also belonged the bearing of burning Torches,
and Candles, before the Images of the Gods, both amongst the Greeks,
and Romans. For afterwards the Emperors of Rome received the same honor;
as we read of Caligula, that at his reception to the Empire,
he was carried from Misenum to Rome, in the midst of a throng of People,
the wayes beset with Altars, and Beasts for Sacrifice, and burning
Torches: And of Caracalla that was received into Alexandria with Incense,
and with casting of Flowers, and Dadouchiais, that is, with Torches;
for Dadochoi were they that amongst the Greeks carried Torches lighted
in the Processions of their Gods: And in processe of time, the devout,
but ignorant People, did many times honor their Bishops with the like
pompe of Wax Candles, and the Images of our Saviour, and the Saints,
constantly, in the Church it self. And thus came in the use of
Wax Candles; and was also established by some of the ancient Councells.

The Heathens had also their Aqua Lustralis, that is to say, Holy Water.
The Church of Rome imitates them also in their Holy Dayes.
They had their Bacchanalia; and we have our Wakes, answering to them:
They their Saturnalia, and we our Carnevalls, and Shrove-tuesdays
liberty of Servants: They their Procession of Priapus; wee our fetching in,
erection, and dancing about May-poles; and Dancing is one kind of Worship:
They had their Procession called Ambarvalia; and we our Procession
about the fields in the Rogation Week. Nor do I think that these are
all the Ceremonies that have been left in the Church, from the first
conversion of the Gentiles: but they are all that I can for the present
call to mind; and if a man would wel observe that which is delivered
in the Histories, concerning the Religious Rites of the Greeks
and Romanes, I doubt not but he might find many more of these old
empty Bottles of Gentilisme, which the Doctors of the Romane Church,
either by Negligence, or Ambition, have filled up again with the
new Wine of Christianity, that will not faile in time to break them.

CHAPTER XLVI

OF DARKNESSE FROM VAIN PHILOSOPHY, AND FABULOUS TRADITIONS

What Philosophy Is
By Philosophy is understood "the Knowledge acquired by Reasoning,
from the Manner of the Generation of any thing, to the Properties;
or from the Properties, to some possible Way of Generation of
the same; to the end to bee able to produce, as far as matter,
and humane force permit, such Effects, as humane life requireth."
So the Geometrician, from the Construction of Figures, findeth out
many Properties thereof; and from the Properties, new Ways of their
Construction, by Reasoning; to the end to be able to measure Land
and Water; and for infinite other uses. So the Astronomer,
from the Rising, Setting, and Moving of the Sun, and Starres,
in divers parts of the Heavens, findeth out the Causes of Day,
and Night, and of the different Seasons of the Year; whereby he
keepeth an account of Time: And the like of other Sciences.

Prudence No Part Of Philosophy
By which Definition it is evident, that we are not to account
as any part thereof, that originall knowledge called Experience,
in which consisteth Prudence: Because it is not attained by Reasoning,
but found as well in Brute Beasts, as in Man; and is but a Memory
of successions of events in times past, wherein the omission
of every little circumstance altering the effect, frustrateth
the expectation of the most Prudent: whereas nothing is produced
by Reasoning aright, but generall, eternall, and immutable Truth.

No False Doctrine Is Part Of Philosophy
Nor are we therefore to give that name to any false Conclusions:
For he that Reasoneth aright in words he understandeth, can never
conclude an Error:

No More Is Revelation Supernaturall
Nor to that which any man knows by supernaturall Revelation;
because it is not acquired by Reasoning:

Nor Learning Taken Upon Credit Of Authors
Nor that which is gotten by Reasoning from the Authority of Books;
because it is not by Reasoning from the Cause to the Effect,
nor from the Effect to the Cause; and is not Knowledge, but Faith.

Of The Beginnings And Progresse Of Philosophy
The faculty of Reasoning being consequent to the use of Speech,
it was not possible, but that there should have been some generall
Truthes found out by Reasoning, as ancient almost as Language it selfe.
The Savages of America, are not without some good Morall Sentences;
also they have a little Arithmetick, to adde, and divide in
Numbers not too great: but they are not therefore Philosophers.
For as there were Plants of Corn and Wine in small quantity dispersed
in the Fields and Woods, before men knew their vertue, or made use
of them for their nourishment, or planted them apart in Fields,
and Vineyards; in which time they fed on Akorns, and drank Water:
so also there have been divers true, generall, and profitable
Speculations from the beginning; as being the naturall plants
of humane Reason: But they were at first but few in number;
men lived upon grosse Experience; there was no Method; that is to say,
no Sowing, nor Planting of Knowledge by it self, apart from the Weeds,
and common Plants of Errour and Conjecture: And the cause of it being
the want of leasure from procuring the necessities of life,
and defending themselves against their neighbours, it was impossible,
till the erecting of great Common-wealths, it should be otherwise.
Leasure is the mother of Philosophy; and Common-wealth, the mother
of Peace, and Leasure: Where first were great and flourishing Cities,
there was first the study of Philosophy. The Gymnosophists of India,
the Magi of Persia, and the Priests of Chaldea and Egypt,
are counted the most ancient Philosophers; and those Countreys
were the most ancient of Kingdomes. Philosophy was not risen to
the Graecians, and other people of the West, whose Common-wealths
(no greater perhaps then Lucca, or Geneva) had never Peace,
but when their fears of one another were equall; nor the Leasure
to observe any thing but one another. At length, when Warre
had united many of these Graecian lesser Cities, into fewer,
and greater; then began Seven Men, of severall parts of Greece,
to get the reputation of being Wise; some of them for Morall
and Politique Sentences; and others for the learning of the Chaldeans
and Egyptians, which was Astronomy, and Geometry. But we hear not yet
of any Schools of Philosophy.

Of The Schools Of Philosophy Amongst The Athenians
After the Athenians by the overthrow of the Persian Armies,
had gotten the Dominion of the Sea; and thereby, of all the Islands,
and Maritime Cities of the Archipelago, as well of Asia as Europe;
and were grown wealthy; they that had no employment, neither at home,
nor abroad, had little else to employ themselves in, but either
(as St. Luke says, Acts 17.21.) "in telling and hearing news,"
or in discoursing of Philosophy publiquely to the youth of the City.
Every Master took some place for that purpose. Plato in certaine
publique Walks called Academia, from one Academus: Aristotle in the Walk
of the Temple of Pan, called Lycaeum: others in the Stoa, or covered Walk,
wherein the Merchants Goods were brought to land: others in other places;
where they spent the time of their Leasure, in teaching or in disputing
of their Opinions: and some in any place, where they could get the
youth of the City together to hear them talk. And this was it which
Carneades also did at Rome, when he was Ambassadour: which caused
Cato to advise the Senate to dispatch him quickly, for feare of
corrupting the manners of the young men that delighted to hear him
speak (as they thought) fine things.

From this it was, that the place where any of them taught, and disputed,
was called Schola, which in their Tongue signifieth Leasure;
and their Disputations, Diatribae, that is to say, Passing of The Time.
Also the Philosophers themselves had the name of their Sects,
some of them from these their Schools: For they that followed
Plato's Doctrine, were called Academiques; The followers of Aristotle,
Peripatetiques, from the Walk hee taught in; and those that Zeno taught,
Stoiques, from the Stoa: as if we should denominate men from More-fields,
from Pauls-Church, and from the Exchange, because they meet there often,
to prate and loyter.

Neverthelesse, men were so much taken with this custome, that in time
it spread it selfe over all Europe, and the best part of Afrique;
so as there were Schools publiquely erected, and maintained for
Lectures, and Disputations, almost in every Common-wealth.

Of The Schools Of The Jews
There were also Schools, anciently, both before, and after the time
of our Saviour, amongst the Jews: but they were Schools of their Law.
For though they were called Synagogues, that is to say, Congregations
of the People; yet in as much as the Law was every Sabbath day read,
expounded, and disputed in them, they differed not in nature,
but in name onely from Publique Schools; and were not onely in Jerusalem,
but in every City of the Gentiles, where the Jews inhabited.
There was such a Schoole at Damascus, whereinto Paul entred, to persecute.
There were others at Antioch, Iconium and Thessalonica, whereinto
he entred, to dispute: And such was the Synagogue of the Libertines,
Cyrenians, Alexandrians, Cilicians, and those of Asia; that is to say,
the Schoole of Libertines, and of Jewes, that were strangers
in Jerusalem: And of this Schoole they were that disputed
with Saint Steven.

The Schoole Of Graecians Unprofitable
But what has been the Utility of those Schools? what Science is there
at this day acquired by their Readings and Disputings? That wee have
of Geometry, which is the Mother of all Naturall Science, wee are
not indebted for it to the Schools. Plato that was the best Philosopher
of the Greeks, forbad entrance into his Schoole, to all that were not
already in some measure Geometricians. There were many that studied
that Science to the great advantage of mankind: but there is no mention
of their Schools; nor was there any Sect of Geometricians;
nor did they then passe under the name of Philosophers.
The naturall Philosophy of those Schools, was rather a Dream
than Science, and set forth in senselesse and insignificant Language;
which cannot be avoided by those that will teach Philosophy,
without having first attained great knowledge in Geometry:
For Nature worketh by Motion; the Wayes, and Degrees whereof
cannot be known, without the knowledge of the Proportions
and Properties of Lines, and Figures. Their Morall Philosophy
is but a description of their own Passions. For the rule of Manners,
without Civill Government, is the Law of Nature; and in it,
the Law Civill; that determineth what is Honest, and Dishonest;
what is Just, and Unjust; and generally what is Good, and Evill:
whereas they make the Rules of Good, and Bad, by their own Liking,
and Disliking: By which means, in so great diversity of taste,
there is nothing generally agreed on; but every one doth
(as far as he dares) whatsoever seemeth good in his own eyes,
to the subversion of Common-wealth. Their Logique which should bee
the Method of Reasoning, is nothing else but Captions of Words,
and Inventions how to puzzle such as should goe about to pose them.
To conclude there is nothing so absurd, that the old Philosophers
(as Cicero saith, who was one of them) have not some of them maintained.
And I beleeve that scarce any thing can be more absurdly said
in naturall Philosophy, than that which now is called Aristotles
Metaphysiques, nor more repugnant to Government, than much of that
hee hath said in his Politiques; nor more ignorantly, than a great part
of his Ethiques.

The Schools Of The Jews Unprofitable
The Schoole of the Jews, was originally a Schoole of the Law of Moses;
who commanded (Deut. 31.10.) that at the end of every seventh year,
at the Feast of the Tabernacles, it should be read to all the people,
that they might hear, and learn it: Therefore the reading of the Law
(which was in use after the Captivity) every Sabbath day,
ought to have had no other end, but the acquainting of the people
with the Commandements which they were to obey, and to expound unto them
the writings of the Prophets. But it is manifest, by the many
reprehensions of them by our Saviour, that they corrupted the Text
of the Law with their false Commentaries, and vain Traditions;
and so little understood the Prophets, that they did neither acknowledge
Christ, nor the works he did; for which the Prophets prophecyed.
So that by their Lectures and Disputations in their Synagogues,
they turned the Doctrine of their Law into a Phantasticall kind
of Philosophy, concerning the incomprehensible nature of God,
and of Spirits; which they compounded of the Vain Philosophy
and Theology of the Graecians, mingled with their own fancies,
drawn from the obscurer places of the Scripture, and which might
most easily bee wrested to their purpose; and from the Fabulous
Traditions of their Ancestors.

University What It Is
That which is now called an University, is a Joyning together,
and an Incorporation under one Government of many Publique Schools,
in one and the same Town or City. In which, the principal Schools
were ordained for the three Professions, that is to say,
of the Romane Religion, of the Romane Law, and of the Art of Medicine.
And for the study of Philosophy it hath no otherwise place,
then as a handmaid to the Romane Religion: And since the Authority of
Aristotle is onely current there, that study is not properly Philosophy,
(the nature whereof dependeth not on Authors,) but Aristotelity.
And for Geometry, till of very late times it had no place at all;
as being subservient to nothing but rigide Truth. And if any man
by the ingenuity of his owne nature, had attained to any degree
of perfection therein, hee was commonly thought a Magician,
and his Art Diabolicall.

Errors Brought Into Religion
From Aristotles Metaphysiques
Now to descend to the particular Tenets of Vain Philosophy,
derived to the Universities, and thence into the Church,
partly from Aristotle, partly from Blindnesse of understanding;
I shall first consider their Principles. There is a certain
Philosophia Prima, on which all other Philosophy ought to depend;
and consisteth principally, in right limiting of the significations
of such Appellations, or Names, as are of all others the most Universall:
Which Limitations serve to avoid ambiguity, and aequivocation
in Reasoning; and are commonly called Definitions; such as are the
Definitions of Body, Time, Place, Matter, Forme, Essence, Subject,
Substance, Accident, Power, Act, Finite, Infinite, Quantity, Quality,
Motion, Action, Passion, and divers others, necessary to the explaining
of a mans Conceptions concerning the Nature and Generation of Bodies.
The Explication (that is, the setling of the meaning) of which,
and the like Terms, is commonly in the Schools called Metaphysiques;
as being a part of the Philosophy of Aristotle, which hath that for title:
but it is in another sense; for there it signifieth as much, as
"Books written, or placed after his naturall Philosophy:" But the Schools
take them for Books Of Supernaturall Philosophy: for the word
Metaphysiques will bear both these senses. And indeed that which
is there written, is for the most part so far from the possibility
of being understood, and so repugnant to naturall Reason,
that whosoever thinketh there is any thing to bee understood by it,
must needs think it supernaturall.

Errors Concerning Abstract Essences
From these Metaphysiques, which are mingled with the Scripture
to make Schoole Divinity, wee are told, there be in the world
certaine Essences separated from Bodies, which they call Abstract
Essences, and Substantiall Formes: For the Interpreting of which Jargon,
there is need of somewhat more than ordinary attention in this place.
Also I ask pardon of those that are not used to this kind of Discourse,
for applying my selfe to those that are. The World, (I mean not
the Earth onely, that denominates the Lovers of it Worldly Men,
but the Universe, that is, the whole masse of all things that are)
is Corporeall, that is to say, Body; and hath the dimensions
of Magnitude, namely, Length, Bredth, and Depth: also every part of Body,
is likewise Body, and hath the like dimensions; and consequently every
part of the Universe, is Body, and that which is not Body,
is no part of the Universe: And because the Universe is all,
that which is no part of it, is Nothing; and consequently No Where.
Nor does it follow from hence, that Spirits are Nothing: for they have
dimensions, and are therefore really Bodies; though that name in
common Speech be given to such Bodies onely, as are visible, or palpable;
that is, that have some degree of Opacity: But for Spirits,
they call them Incorporeall; which is a name of more honour,
and may therefore with more piety bee attributed to God himselfe;
in whom wee consider not what Attribute expresseth best his Nature,
which is Incomprehensible; but what best expresseth our desire
to honour him.

To know now upon what grounds they say there be Essences Abstract,
or Substantiall Formes, wee are to consider what those words
do properly signifie. The use of Words, is to register to our selves,
and make manifest to others the Thoughts and Conceptions of our Minds.
Of which Words, some are the names of the Things conceived;
as the names of all sorts of Bodies, that work upon the Senses,
and leave an Impression in the Imagination: Others are the names
of the Imaginations themselves; that is to say, of those Ideas,
or mentall Images we have of all things wee see, or remember:
And others againe are names of Names; or of different sorts of Speech:
As Universall, Plurall, Singular, Negation, True, False, Syllogisme,
Interrogation, Promise, Covenant, are the names of certain Forms of Speech.
Others serve to shew the Consequence, or Repugnance of one name
to another; as when one saith, "A Man is a Body," hee intendeth
that the name of Body is necessarily consequent to the name of Man;
as being but severall names of the same thing, Man; which Consequence
is signified by coupling them together with the word Is.
And as wee use the Verbe Is; so the Latines use their Verbe Est,
and the Greeks their Esti through all its Declinations.
Whether all other Nations of the world have in their severall
languages a word that answereth to it, or not, I cannot tell;
but I am sure they have not need of it: For the placing of two names
in order may serve to signifie their Consequence, if it were the custome,
(for Custome is it, that give words their force,) as well as the words Is,
or Bee, or Are, and the like.