Books: Leviathan

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Pulchrum Turpe
Delightfull Profitable
Unpleasant Unprofitable
The Latine Tongue has two words, whose significations approach
to those of Good and Evill; but are not precisely the same;
And those are Pulchrum and Turpe. Whereof the former signifies that,
which by some apparent signes promiseth Good; and the later,
that, which promiseth evill. But in our Tongue we have not so
generall names to expresse them by. But for Pulchrum, we say in
some things, Fayre; in other Beautifull, or Handsome, or Gallant,
or Honourable, or Comely, or Amiable; and for Turpe, Foule, Deformed,
Ugly, Base, Nauseous, and the like, as the subject shall require;
All which words, in their proper places signifie nothing els,
but the Mine, or Countenance, that promiseth Good and evill.
So that of Good there be three kinds; Good in the Promise,
that is Pulchrum; Good in Effect, as the end desired, which is called
Jucundum, Delightfull; and Good as the Means, which is called Utile,
Profitable; and as many of evill: For evill, in Promise, is that
they call Turpe; evill in Effect, and End, is Molestum, Unpleasant,
Troublesome; and evill in the Means, Inutile, Unprofitable, Hurtfull.

Delight Displeasure
As, in Sense, that which is really within us, is (As I have sayd before)
onely Motion, caused by the action of externall objects, but in apparence;
to the Sight, Light and Colour; to the Eare, Sound; to the Nostrill,
Odour, &c: so, when the action of the same object is continued from
the Eyes, Eares, and other organs to the Heart; the real effect there
is nothing but Motion, or Endeavour; which consisteth in Appetite,
or Aversion, to, or from the object moving. But the apparence, or sense
of that motion, is that wee either call DELIGHT, or TROUBLE OF MIND.

Pleasure Offence
This Motion, which is called Appetite, and for the apparence of it
Delight, and Pleasure, seemeth to be, a corroboration of Vitall motion,
and a help thereunto; and therefore such things as caused Delight,
were not improperly called Jucunda, (A Juvando,) from helping or
fortifying; and the contrary, Molesta, Offensive, from hindering,
and troubling the motion vitall.

Pleasure therefore, (or Delight,) is the apparence, or sense of Good;
and Molestation or Displeasure, the apparence, or sense of evill.
And consequently all Appetite, Desire, and Love, is accompanied
with some Delight more or lesse; and all Hatred, and Aversion,
with more or lesse Displeasure and Offence.

Pleasures Of Sense
Pleasures Of The Mind
Joy Paine Griefe
Of Pleasures, or Delights, some arise from the sense of an object Present;
And those may be called Pleasures Of Sense, (The word Sensuall,
as it is used by those onely that condemn them, having no place
till there be Lawes.) Of this kind are all Onerations and Exonerations
of the body; as also all that is pleasant, in the Sight, Hearing,
Smell, Tast, Or Touch; Others arise from the Expectation, that proceeds
from foresight of the End, or Consequence of things; whether those things
in the Sense Please or Displease: And these are Pleasures Of The Mind
of him that draweth those consequences; and are generally called JOY.
In the like manner, Displeasures, are some in the Sense, and called PAYNE;
others, in the Expectation of consequences, and are called GRIEFE.

These simple Passions called Appetite, Desire, Love, Aversion, Hate,
Joy, and griefe, have their names for divers considerations diversified.
As first, when they one succeed another, they are diversly called from
the opinion men have of the likelihood of attaining what they desire.
Secondly, from the object loved or hated. Thirdly, from the
consideration of many of them together. Fourthly, from the Alteration
or succession it selfe.

Hope
For Appetite with an opinion of attaining, is called HOPE.

Despaire
The same, without such opinion, DESPAIRE.

Feare
Aversion, with opinion of Hurt from the object, FEARE.

Courage
The same, with hope of avoyding that Hurt by resistance, COURAGE.

Anger
Sudden Courage, ANGER.

Confidence
Constant Hope, CONFIDENCE of our selves.

Diffidence
Constant Despayre, DIFFIDENCE of our selves.

Indignation
Anger for great hurt done to another, when we conceive the same
to be done by Injury, INDIGNATION.

Benevolence
Desire of good to another, BENEVOLENCE, GOOD WILL, CHARITY.
If to man generally, GOOD NATURE.

Covetousnesse
Desire of Riches, COVETOUSNESSE: a name used alwayes in signification
of blame; because men contending for them, are displeased with one
anothers attaining them; though the desire in it selfe, be to be blamed,
or allowed, according to the means by which those Riches are sought.

Ambition
Desire of Office, or precedence, AMBITION: a name used also in
the worse sense, for the reason before mentioned.

Pusillanimity
Desire of things that conduce but a little to our ends; And fear of
things that are but of little hindrance, PUSILLANIMITY.

Magnanimity
Contempt of little helps, and hindrances, MAGNANIMITY.

Valour
Magnanimity, in danger of Death, or Wounds, VALOUR, FORTITUDE.

Liberality
Magnanimity in the use of Riches, LIBERALITY

Miserablenesse
Pusillanimity, in the same WRETCHEDNESSE, MISERABLENESSE; or PARSIMONY;
as it is liked or disliked.

Kindnesse
Love of Persons for society, KINDNESSE.

Naturall Lust
Love of Persons for Pleasing the sense onely, NATURAL LUST.

Luxury
Love of the same, acquired from Rumination, that is Imagination of
Pleasure past, LUXURY.

The Passion Of Love
Jealousie
Love of one singularly, with desire to be singularly beloved,
THE PASSION OF LOVE. The same, with fear that the love is not
mutuall, JEALOUSIE.

Revengefulnesse
Desire, by doing hurt to another, to make him condemn some fact
of his own, REVENGEFULNESSE.

Curiosity
Desire, to know why, and how, CURIOSITY; such as is in no living
creature but Man; so that Man is distinguished, not onely by his Reason;
but also by this singular Passion from other Animals; in whom the
appetite of food, and other pleasures of Sense, by praedominance,
take away the care of knowing causes; which is a Lust of the mind,
that by a perseverance of delight in the continuall and indefatigable
generation of Knowledge, exceedeth the short vehemence of any
carnall Pleasure.

Religion Superstition
True Religion
Feare of power invisible, feigned by the mind, or imagined
from tales publiquely allowed, RELIGION; not allowed, superstition.
And when the power imagined is truly such as we imagine, TRUE RELIGION.

Panique Terrour
Feare, without the apprehension of why, or what, PANIQUE TERROR;
called so from the fables that make Pan the author of them;
whereas in truth there is always in him that so feareth, first,
some apprehension of the cause, though the rest run away by example;
every one supposing his fellow to know why. And therefore this Passion
happens to none but in a throng, or multitude of people.

Admiration
Joy, from apprehension of novelty, ADMIRATION; proper to man,
because it excites the appetite of knowing the cause.

Glory Vaine-glory
Joy, arising from imagination of a man's own power and ability,
is that exultation of the mind which is called GLORYING: which,
if grounded upon the experience of his own former actions,
is the same with Confidence: but if grounded on the flattery of others,
or onely supposed by himselfe, for delight in the consequences of it,
is called VAINE-GLORY: which name is properly given; because a
well-grounded Confidence begetteth attempt; whereas the supposing of
power does not, and is therefore rightly called Vaine.

Dejection
Griefe, from opinion of want of power, is called dejection of mind.

The Vaine-glory which consisteth in the feigning or supposing
of abilities in ourselves, which we know are not, is most incident
to young men, and nourished by the Histories or Fictions of
Gallant Persons; and is corrected often times by Age, and Employment.

Sudden Glory Laughter
Sudden glory, is the passion which maketh those Grimaces called LAUGHTER;
and is caused either by some sudden act of their own, that pleaseth them;
or by the apprehension of some deformed thing in another, by comparison
whereof they suddenly applaud themselves. And it is incident most to them,
that are conscious of the fewest abilities in themselves; who are forced
to keep themselves in their own favour, by observing the imperfections
of other men. And therefore much Laughter at the defects of others is a
signe of Pusillanimity. For of great minds, one of the proper workes is,
to help and free others from scorn; and compare themselves onely
with the most able.

Sudden Dejection Weeping
On the contrary, Sudden Dejection is the passion that causeth
WEEPING; and is caused by such accidents, as suddenly take away some
vehement hope, or some prop of their power: and they are most
subject to it, that rely principally on helps externall, such as are
Women, and Children. Therefore, some Weep for the loss of Friends;
Others for their unkindnesse; others for the sudden stop made to
their thoughts of revenge, by Reconciliation. But in all cases, both
Laughter and Weeping, are sudden motions; Custome taking them both away.
For no man Laughs at old jests; or Weeps for an old calamity.

Shame Blushing
Griefe, for the discovery of some defect of ability is SHAME,
or the passion that discovereth itself in BLUSHING; and consisteth
in the apprehension of some thing dishonourable; and in young men,
is a signe of the love of good reputation; and commendable:
in old men it is a signe of the same; but because it comes too late,
not commendable.

Impudence
The Contempt of good reputation is called IMPUDENCE.

Pitty
Griefe, for the calamity of another is PITTY; and ariseth from
the imagination that the like calamity may befall himselfe;
and therefore is called also COMPASSION, and in the phrase of this
present time a FELLOW-FEELING: and therefore for Calamity arriving
from great wickedness, the best men have the least Pitty;
and for the same Calamity, those have least Pitty, that think
themselves least obnoxious to the same.

Cruelty
Contempt, or little sense of the calamity of others, is that which
men call CRUELTY; proceeding from Security of their own fortune.
For, that any man should take pleasure in other mens' great harmes,
without other end of his own, I do not conceive it possible.

Emulation Envy
Griefe, for the success of a Competitor in wealth, honour, or other
good, if it be joyned with Endeavour to enforce our own abilities to
equal or exceed him, is called EMULATION: but joyned with Endeavour to
supplant or hinder a Competitor, ENVIE.

Deliberation
When in the mind of man, Appetites and Aversions, Hopes and Feares,
concerning one and the same thing, arise alternately; and divers good
and evill consequences of the doing, or omitting the thing propounded,
come successively into our thoughts; so that sometimes we have an
Appetite to it, sometimes an Aversion from it; sometimes Hope to be
able to do it; sometimes Despaire, or Feare to attempt it; the whole sum
of Desires, Aversions, Hopes and Feares, continued till the thing be
either done, or thought impossible, is that we call DELIBERATION.

Therefore of things past, there is no Deliberation; because
manifestly impossible to be changed: nor of things known to
be impossible, or thought so; because men know, or think such
Deliberation vaine. But of things impossible, which we think possible,
we may Deliberate; not knowing it is in vain. And it is called
DELIBERATION; because it is a putting an end to the Liberty we had
of doing, or omitting, according to our own Appetite, or Aversion.

This alternate succession of Appetites, Aversions, Hopes and Feares
is no less in other living Creatures than in Man; and therefore
Beasts also Deliberate.

Every Deliberation is then sayd to End when that whereof they
Deliberate, is either done, or thought impossible; because till then
wee retain the liberty of doing, or omitting, according to our
Appetite, or Aversion.

The Will
In Deliberation, the last Appetite, or Aversion, immediately
adhaering to the action, or to the omission thereof, is that
wee call the WILL; the Act, (not the faculty,) of Willing.
And Beasts that have Deliberation must necessarily also have Will.
The Definition of the Will, given commonly by the Schooles,
that it is a Rationall Appetite, is not good. For if it were,
then could there be no Voluntary Act against Reason. For a Voluntary Act
is that, which proceedeth from the Will, and no other. But if in stead
of a Rationall Appetite, we shall say an Appetite resulting from
a precedent Deliberation, then the Definition is the same that I
have given here. Will, therefore, Is The Last Appetite In Deliberating.
And though we say in common Discourse, a man had a Will once to
do a thing, that neverthelesse he forbore to do; yet that is
properly but an Inclination, which makes no Action Voluntary;
because the action depends not of it, but of the last Inclination,
or Appetite. For if the intervenient Appetites make any action Voluntary,
then by the same reason all intervenient Aversions should make
the same action Involuntary; and so one and the same action should be
both Voluntary & Involuntary.

By this it is manifest, that not onely actions that have their
beginning from Covetousness, Ambition, Lust, or other Appetites
to the thing propounded; but also those that have their beginning
from Aversion, or Feare of those consequences that follow the omission,
are Voluntary Actions.

Formes Of Speech, In Passion
The formes of Speech by which the Passions are expressed,
are partly the same, and partly different from those, by which we
express our Thoughts. And first generally all Passions may be
expressed Indicatively; as, I Love, I Feare, I Joy, I Deliberate,
I Will, I Command: but some of them have particular expressions
by themselves, which nevertheless are not affirmations, unless it be
when they serve to make other inferences, besides that of the Passion
they proceed from. Deliberation is expressed Subjunctively;
which is a speech proper to signifie suppositions, with their
consequences; as, If This Be Done, Then This Will Follow;
and differs not from the language of Reasoning, save that
Reasoning is in generall words, but Deliberation for the most part
is of Particulars. The language of Desire, and Aversion,
is Imperative; as, Do This, Forbear That; which when the party
is obliged to do, or forbear, is Command; otherwise Prayer;
or els Counsell. The language of Vaine-Glory, of Indignation,
Pitty and Revengefulness, Optative: but of the Desire to know,
there is a peculiar expression called Interrogative; as, What Is It,
When Shall It, How Is It Done, and Why So? Other language of
the Passions I find none: for Cursing, Swearing, Reviling, and the like,
do not signifie as Speech; but as the actions of a tongue accustomed.

These forms of Speech, I say, are expressions, or voluntary
significations of our Passions: but certain signes they be not;
because they may be used arbitrarily, whether they that use them,
have such Passions or not. The best signes of Passions present,
are either in the countenance, motions of the body, actions,
and ends, or aims, which we otherwise know the man to have.

Good And Evill Apparent
And because in Deliberation the Appetites and Aversions are raised
by foresight of the good and evill consequences, and sequels of the
action whereof we Deliberate; the good or evill effect thereof
dependeth on the foresight of a long chain of consequences,
of which very seldome any man is able to see to the end. But for so
far as a man seeth, if the Good in those consequences be greater
than the evill, the whole chain is that which Writers call Apparent
or Seeming Good. And contrarily, when the evill exceedeth the good,
the whole is Apparent or Seeming Evill: so that he who hath by Experience,
or Reason, the greatest and surest prospect of Consequences,
Deliberates best himself; and is able, when he will, to give the
best counsel unto others.

Felicity
Continual Successe in obtaining those things which a man from
time to time desireth, that is to say, continual prospering,
is that men call FELICITY; I mean the Felicity of this life.
For there is no such thing as perpetual Tranquillity of mind,
while we live here; because Life itself is but Motion, and can never
be without Desire, nor without Feare, no more than without Sense.
What kind of Felicity God hath ordained to them that devoutly honour him,
a man shall no sooner know, than enjoy; being joys, that now are
as incomprehensible, as the word of School-men, Beatifical Vision,
is unintelligible.

Praise Magnification
The form of speech whereby men signifie their opinion of the Goodnesse
of anything is PRAISE. That whereby they signifie the power and
greatness of anything is MAGNIFYING. And that whereby they signifie the
opinion they have of a man's felicity is by the Greeks called
Makarismos, for which we have no name in our tongue. And thus much
is sufficient for the present purpose to have been said of the
passions.

CHAPTER VII

OF THE ENDS OR RESOLUTIONS OF DISCOURSE

Of all Discourse, governed by desire of Knowledge, there is at last
an End, either by attaining, or by giving over. And in the chain of
Discourse, wheresoever it be interrupted, there is an End for that time.

Judgement, or Sentence Final
Doubt
If the Discourse be meerly Mentall, it consisteth of thoughts
that the thing will be, and will not be; or that it has been,
and has not been, alternately. So that wheresoever you break off
the chayn of a mans Discourse, you leave him in a Praesumption
of It Will Be, or, It Will Not Be; or it Has Been, or, Has Not Been.
All which is Opinion. And that which is alternate Appetite,
in Deliberating concerning Good and Evil, the same is alternate
Opinion in the Enquiry of the truth of Past, and Future.
And as the last Appetite in Deliberation is called the Will,
so the last Opinion in search of the truth of Past, and Future,
is called the JUDGEMENT, or Resolute and Final Sentence of him
that Discourseth. And as the whole chain of Appetites alternate,
in the question of Good or Bad is called Deliberation; so the whole
chain of Opinions alternate, in the question of True, or False
is called DOUBT.

No Discourse whatsoever, can End in absolute knowledge of Fact,
past, or to come. For, as for the knowledge of Fact, it is originally,
Sense; and ever after, Memory. And for the knowledge of consequence,
which I have said before is called Science, it is not Absolute,
but Conditionall. No man can know by Discourse, that this, or that,
is, has been, or will be; which is to know absolutely: but onely, that
if This be, That is; if This has been, That has been; if This shall be,
That shall be: which is to know conditionally; and that not the
consequence of one thing to another; but of one name of a thing,
to another name of the same thing.

Science Opinion Conscience
And therefore, when the Discourse is put into Speech, and begins
with the Definitions of Words, and proceeds by Connexion of the same
into general Affirmations, and of these again into Syllogismes,
the end or last sum is called the Conclusion; and the thought
of the mind by it signified is that conditional Knowledge,
or Knowledge of the consequence of words, which is commonly called Science.
But if the first ground of such Discourse be not Definitions,
or if the Definitions be not rightly joyned together into Syllogismes,
then the End or Conclusion is again OPINION, namely of the truth
of somewhat said, though sometimes in absurd and senslesse words,
without possibility of being understood. When two, or more men,
know of one and the same fact, they are said to be CONSCIOUS of it
one to another; which is as much as to know it together.
And because such are fittest witnesses of the facts of one another,
or of a third, it was, and ever will be reputed a very Evill act,
for any man to speak against his Conscience; or to corrupt or force
another so to do: Insomuch that the plea of Conscience, has been always
hearkened unto very diligently in all times. Afterwards, men made use
of the same word metaphorically, for the knowledge of their own
secret facts, and secret thoughts; and therefore it is Rhetorically
said that the Conscience is a thousand witnesses. And last of all,
men, vehemently in love with their own new opinions, (though never
so absurd,) and obstinately bent to maintain them, gave those
their opinions also that reverenced name of Conscience, as if they
would have it seem unlawful, to change or speak against them;
and so pretend to know they are true, when they know at most
but that they think so.

Beliefe Faith
When a mans Discourse beginneth not at Definitions, it beginneth
either at some other contemplation of his own, and then it is still
called Opinion; Or it beginneth at some saying of another,
of whose ability to know the truth, and of whose honesty in not deceiving,
he doubteth not; and then the Discourse is not so much concerning
the Thing, as the Person; And the Resolution is called BELEEFE, and FAITH:
Faith, In the man; Beleefe, both Of the man, and Of the truth of
what he sayes. So then in Beleefe are two opinions; one of
the saying of the man; the other of his vertue. To Have Faith In,
or Trust To, or Beleeve A Man, signifie the same thing; namely,
an opinion of the veracity of the man: But to Beleeve What Is Said,
signifieth onely an opinion of the truth of the saying. But wee are
to observe that this Phrase, I Beleeve In; as also the Latine, Credo In;
and the Greek, Pisteno Eis, are never used but in the writings
of Divines. In stead of them, in other writings are put, I Beleeve Him;
I Have Faith In Him; I Rely On Him: and in Latin, Credo Illi; Fido Illi:
and in Greek, Pisteno Anto: and that this singularity of the
Ecclesiastical use of the word hath raised many disputes about the
right object of the Christian Faith.

But by Beleeving In, as it is in the Creed, is meant, not trust
in the Person; but Confession and acknowledgement of the Doctrine.
For not onely Christians, but all manner of men do so believe in God,
as to hold all for truth they heare him say, whether they understand it,
or not; which is all the Faith and trust can possibly be had in any
person whatsoever: But they do not all believe the Doctrine of the Creed.

From whence we may inferre, that when wee believe any saying
whatsoever it be, to be true, from arguments taken, not from
the thing it selfe, or from the principles of naturall Reason,
but from the Authority, and good opinion wee have, of him that
hath sayd it; then is the speaker, or person we believe in, or trust in,
and whose word we take, the object of our Faith; and the Honour done
in Believing, is done to him onely. And consequently, when wee Believe
that the Scriptures are the word of God, having no immediate revelation
from God himselfe, our Beleefe, Faith, and Trust is in the Church;
whose word we take, and acquiesce therein. And they that believe that
which a Prophet relates unto them in the name of God, take the word
of the Prophet, do honour to him, and in him trust, and believe,
touching the truth of what he relateth, whether he be a true,
or a false Prophet. And so it is also with all other History.
For if I should not believe all that is written By Historians,
of the glorious acts of Alexander, or Caesar; I do not think the
Ghost of Alexander, or Caesar, had any just cause to be offended;
or any body else, but the Historian. If Livy say the Gods made once a
Cow speak, and we believe it not; wee distrust not God therein, but Livy.
So that it is evident, that whatsoever we believe, upon no other reason,
than what is drawn from authority of men onely, and their writings;
whether they be sent from God or not, is Faith in men onely.

CHAPTER VIII

OF THE VERTUES COMMONLY CALLED INTELLECTUAL;
AND THEIR CONTRARY DEFECTS

Intellectuall Vertue Defined
Vertue generally, in all sorts of subjects, is somewhat that is
valued for eminence; and consisteth in comparison. For if all
things were equally in all men, nothing would be prized.
And by Vertues INTELLECTUALL, are always understood such abilityes
of the mind, as men praise, value, and desire should be in themselves;
and go commonly under the name of a Good Witte; though the same word
Witte, be used also, to distinguish one certain ability from the rest.

Wit, Naturall, Or Acquired
These Vertues are of two sorts; Naturall, and Acquired. By Naturall,
I mean not, that which a man hath from his Birth: for that is nothing
else but Sense; wherein men differ so little one from another,
and from brute Beasts, as it is not to be reckoned amongst Vertues.
But I mean, that Witte, which is gotten by Use onely, and Experience;
without Method, Culture, or Instruction. This NATURALL WITTE,
consisteth principally in two things; Celerity Of Imagining,
(that is, swift succession of one thought to another;) and Steddy
Direction to some approved end. On the Contrary a slow Imagination,
maketh that Defect, or fault of the mind, which is commonly
called DULNESSE, Stupidity, and sometimes by other names that
signifie slownesse of motion, or difficulty to be moved.