(A.E.) George William Russell - "Imaginations and Reveries"

Georges Ohnet - "Serge Panine, v1"

Jean de La Fontaine - "The Tales and Novels, v15: The Mandrake & The Rhemese"

Zane Grey - "The Last Trail"

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Books: Leviathan

T >> Thomas Hobbes >> Leviathan




Secondly, it may enter into account, or be considered, for some
accident or quality, which we conceive to be in it; as for Being Moved,
for Being So Long, for Being Hot, &c; and then, of the name of
the thing it selfe, by a little change or wresting, wee make a name
for that accident, which we consider; and for Living put into account
Life; for Moved, Motion; for Hot, Heat; for Long, Length, and the like.
And all such Names, are the names of the accidents and properties,
by which one Matter, and Body is distinguished from another.
These are called Names Abstract; Because Severed (not from Matter, but)
from the account of Matter.

Thirdly, we bring into account, the Properties of our own bodies,
whereby we make such distinction: as when any thing is Seen by us,
we reckon not the thing it selfe; but the Sight, the Colour, the Idea
of it in the fancy: and when any thing is Heard, wee reckon it not;
but the Hearing, or Sound onely, which is our fancy or conception
of it by the Eare: and such are names of fancies.

Fourthly, we bring into account, consider, and give names,
to Names themselves, and to Speeches: For, Generall, Universall,
Speciall, Oequivocall, are names of Names. And Affirmation,
Interrogation, Commandement, Narration, Syllogisme, Sermon, Oration,
and many other such, are names of Speeches.

Use Of Names Positive
And this is all the variety of Names Positive; which are put to mark
somewhat which is in Nature, or may be feigned by the mind of man,
as Bodies that are, or may be conceived to be; or of bodies,
the Properties that are, or may be feigned to be; or Words and Speech.

Negative Names With Their Uses.
There be also other Names, called Negative; which are notes to signifie
that a word is not the name of the thing in question; as these words
Nothing, No Man, Infinite, Indocible, Three Want Foure, and the like;
which are nevertheless of use in reckoning, or in correcting of reckoning;
and call to mind our past cogitations, though they be not names of
any thing; because they make us refuse to admit of Names not rightly used.

Words Insignificant
All other names, are but insignificant sounds; and those of two sorts.
One, when they are new, and yet their meaning not explained by Definition;
whereof there have been aboundance coyned by Schoole-men,
and pusled Philosophers.

Another, when men make a name of two Names, whose significations
are contradictory and inconsistent; as this name, an Incorporeall Body,
or (which is all one) an Incorporeall Substance, and a great number more.
For whensoever any affirmation is false, the two names of which
it is composed, put together and made one, signifie nothing at all.
For example if it be a false affirmation to say A Quadrangle Is Round,
the word Round Quadrangle signifies nothing; but is a meere sound.
So likewise if it be false, to say that vertue can be powred,
or blown up and down; the words In-powred Vertue, In-blown Vertue,
are as absurd and insignificant, as a Round Quadrangle. And therefore
you shall hardly meet with a senselesse and insignificant word,
that is not made up of some Latin or Greek names. A Frenchman seldome
hears our Saviour called by the name of Parole, but by the name
of Verbe often; yet Verbe and Parole differ no more, but that
one is Latin, the other French.

Understanding
When a man upon the hearing of any Speech, hath those thoughts
which the words of that Speech, and their connexion, were ordained
and constituted to signifie; Then he is said to understand it;
Understanding being nothing els, but conception caused by Speech.
And therefore if Speech be peculiar to man (as for ought I know it is,)
then is Understanding peculiar to him also. And therefore of absurd
and false affirmations, in case they be universall, there can be
no Understanding; though many think they understand, then, when they
do but repeat the words softly, or con them in their mind.

What kinds of Speeches signifie the Appetites, Aversions, and
Passions of mans mind; and of their use and abuse, I shall speak
when I have spoken of the Passions.

Inconstant Names
The names of such things as affect us, that is, which please,
and displease us, because all men be not alike affected with
the same thing, nor the same man at all times, are in the common
discourses of men, of Inconstant signification. For seeing all names
are imposed to signifie our conceptions; and all our affections
are but conceptions; when we conceive the same things differently,
we can hardly avoyd different naming of them. For though the nature of
that we conceive, be the same; yet the diversity of our reception of it,
in respect of different constitutions of body, and prejudices of opinion,
gives everything a tincture of our different passions. And therefore
in reasoning, a man bust take heed of words; which besides the
signification of what we imagine of their nature, disposition,
and interest of the speaker; such as are the names of Vertues,
and Vices; For one man calleth Wisdome, what another calleth Feare;
and one Cruelty, what another Justice; one Prodigality, what another
Magnanimity; one Gravity, what another Stupidity, &c. And therefore
such names can never be true grounds of any ratiocination. No more can
Metaphors, and Tropes of speech: but these are less dangerous,
because they profess their inconstancy; which the other do not.



CHAPTER V.

OF REASON, AND SCIENCE.


Reason What It Is
When a man Reasoneth, hee does nothing els but conceive a summe totall,
from Addition of parcels; or conceive a Remainder, from Substraction
of one summe from another: which (if it be done by Words,)
is conceiving of the consequence of the names of all the parts,
to the name of the whole; or from the names of the whole and one
part, to the name of the other part. And though in some things,
(as in numbers,) besides Adding and Substracting, men name other
operations, as Multiplying and Dividing; yet they are the same;
for Multiplication, is but Addition together of things equall;
and Division, but Substracting of one thing, as often as we can.
These operations are not incident to Numbers onely, but to
all manner of things that can be added together, and taken
one out of another. For as Arithmeticians teach to adde and
substract in Numbers; so the Geometricians teach the same in Lines,
Figures (solid and superficiall,) Angles, Proportions, Times,
degrees of Swiftnesse, Force, Power, and the like; The Logicians
teach the same in Consequences Of Words; adding together Two Names,
to make an Affirmation; and Two Affirmations, to make a syllogisme;
and Many syllogismes to make a Demonstration; and from the Summe,
or Conclusion of a syllogisme, they substract one Proposition,
to finde the other. Writers of Politiques, adde together Pactions,
to find mens Duties; and Lawyers, Lawes and Facts, to find what
is Right and Wrong in the actions of private men. In summe, in what
matter soever there is place for Addition and Substraction,
there also is place for Reason; and where these have no place,
there Reason has nothing at all to do.

Reason Defined
Out of all which we may define, (that is to say determine,)
what that is, which is meant by this word Reason, when wee reckon it
amongst the Faculties of the mind. For Reason, in this sense,
is nothing but Reckoning (that is, Adding and Substracting) of the
Consequences of generall names agreed upon, for the Marking and
Signifying of our thoughts; I say Marking them, when we reckon
by our selves; and Signifying, when we demonstrate, or approve our
reckonings to other men.

Right Reason Where
And as in Arithmetique, unpractised men must, and Professors
themselves may often erre, and cast up false; so also in any
other subject of Reasoning, the ablest, most attentive, and most
practised men, may deceive themselves, and inferre false Conclusions;
Not but that Reason it selfe is always Right Reason, as well as
Arithmetique is a certain and infallible art: But no one mans Reason,
nor the Reason of any one number of men, makes the certaintie;
no more than an account is therefore well cast up, because a great
many men have unanimously approved it. And therfore, as when
there is a controversy in an account, the parties must by their
own accord, set up for right Reason, the Reason of some Arbitrator,
or Judge, to whose sentence they will both stand, or their
controversie must either come to blowes, or be undecided,
for want of a right Reason constituted by Nature; so is it also
in all debates of what kind soever: And when men that think themselves
wiser than all others, clamor and demand right Reason for judge;
yet seek no more, but that things should be determined, by no other
mens reason but their own, it is as intolerable in the society of men,
as it is in play after trump is turned, to use for trump on every occasion,
that suite whereof they have most in their hand. For they do nothing els,
that will have every of their passions, as it comes to bear sway in them,
to be taken for right Reason, and that in their own controversies:
bewraying their want of right Reason, by the claym they lay to it.

The Use Of Reason
The Use and End of Reason, is not the finding of the summe,
and truth of one, or a few consequences, remote from the first
definitions, and settled significations of names; but to begin
at these; and proceed from one consequence to another. For there can
be no certainty of the last Conclusion, without a certainty of all those
Affirmations and Negations, on which it was grounded, and inferred.
As when a master of a family, in taking an account, casteth up
the summs of all the bills of expence, into one sum; and not regarding
how each bill is summed up, by those that give them in account;
nor what it is he payes for; he advantages himselfe no more,
than if he allowed the account in grosse, trusting to every
of the accountants skill and honesty; so also in Reasoning of
all other things, he that takes up conclusions on the trust of Authors,
and doth not fetch them from the first Items in every Reckoning,
(which are the significations of names settled by definitions),
loses his labour; and does not know any thing; but onely beleeveth.

Of Error And Absurdity
When a man reckons without the use of words, which may be done
in particular things, (as when upon the sight of any one thing,
wee conjecture what was likely to have preceded, or is likely
to follow upon it;) if that which he thought likely to follow,
followes not; or that which he thought likely to have preceded it,
hath not preceded it, this is called ERROR; to which even the most
prudent men are subject. But when we Reason in Words of generall
signification, and fall upon a generall inference which is false;
though it be commonly called Error, it is indeed an ABSURDITY,
or senseless Speech. For Error is but a deception, in presuming
that somewhat is past, or to come; of which, though it were not past,
or not to come; yet there was no impossibility discoverable.
But when we make a generall assertion, unlesse it be a true one,
the possibility of it is unconceivable. And words whereby
we conceive nothing but the sound, are those we call Absurd,
insignificant, and Non-sense. And therefore if a man should
talk to me of a Round Quadrangle; or Accidents Of Bread In Cheese;
or Immaterial Substances; or of A Free Subject; A Free Will;
or any Free, but free from being hindred by opposition, I should not
say he were in an Errour; but that his words were without meaning;
that is to say, Absurd.

I have said before, (in the second chapter,) that a Man did excell
all other Animals in this faculty, that when he conceived any
thing whatsoever, he was apt to enquire the consequences of it,
and what effects he could do with it. And now I adde this other
degree of the same excellence, that he can by words reduce the
consequences he findes to generall Rules, called Theoremes,
or Aphorismes; that is, he can Reason, or reckon, not onely in number;
but in all other things, whereof one may be added unto, or substracted
from another.

But this priviledge, is allayed by another; and that is, by the
priviledge of Absurdity; to which no living creature is subject,
but man onely. And of men, those are of all most subject to it,
that professe Philosophy. For it is most true that Cicero sayth
of them somewhere; that there can be nothing so absurd, but may be
found in the books of Philosophers. And the reason is manifest.
For there is not one of them that begins his ratiocination from
the Definitions, or Explications of the names they are to use;
which is a method that hath been used onely in Geometry; whose
Conclusions have thereby been made indisputable.

Causes Of Absurditie
The first cause of Absurd conclusions I ascribe to the want of Method;
in that they begin not their Ratiocination from Definitions; that is,
from settled significations of their words: as if they could cast account,
without knowing the value of the numerall words, One, Two, and Three.

And whereas all bodies enter into account upon divers considerations,
(which I have mentioned in the precedent chapter;) these considerations
being diversly named, divers absurdities proceed from the confusion,
and unfit connexion of their names into assertions. And therefore

The second cause of Absurd assertions, I ascribe to the giving
of names of Bodies, to Accidents; or of Accidents, to Bodies;
As they do, that say, Faith Is Infused, or Inspired; when nothing
can be Powred, or Breathed into any thing, but body; and that,
Extension is Body; that Phantasmes are Spirits, &c.

The third I ascribe to the giving of the names of the Accidents
of Bodies Without Us, to the Accidents of our Own Bodies;
as they do that say, the Colour Is In The Body; The Sound Is In The Ayre, &c.

The fourth, to the giving of the names of Bodies, to Names,
or Speeches; as they do that say, that There Be Things Universall;
that A Living Creature Is Genus, or A Generall Thing, &c.

The fifth, to the giving of the names of Accidents, to Names and Speeches;
as they do that say, The Nature Of A Thing Is In Its Definition;
A Mans Command Is His Will; and the like.

The sixth, to the use of Metaphors, Tropes, and other Rhetoricall figures,
in stead of words proper. For though it be lawfull to say, (for example)
in common speech, The Way Goeth, Or Leadeth Hither, Or Thither,
The Proverb Sayes This Or That (whereas wayes cannot go,
nor Proverbs speak;) yet in reckoning, and seeking of truth,
such speeches are not to be admitted.

The seventh, to names that signifie nothing; but are taken up,
and learned by rote from the Schooles, as Hypostatical, Transubstantiate, Consubstantiate, Eternal-now, and the like canting of Schoole-men.

To him that can avoyd these things, it is not easie to fall
into any absurdity, unlesse it be by the length of an account;
wherein he may perhaps forget what went before. For all men
by nature reason alike, and well, when they have good principles.
For who is so stupid, as both to mistake in Geometry, and also to
persist in it, when another detects his error to him?

Science
By this it appears that Reason is not as Sense, and Memory,
borne with us; nor gotten by Experience onely; as Prudence is;
but attayned by Industry; first in apt imposing of Names;
and secondly by getting a good and orderly Method in proceeding
from the Elements, which are Names, to Assertions made by Connexion
of one of them to another; and so to syllogismes, which are the
Connexions of one Assertion to another, till we come to a knowledge
of all the Consequences of names appertaining to the subject in hand;
and that is it, men call SCIENCE. And whereas Sense and Memory are
but knowledge of Fact, which is a thing past, and irrevocable;
Science is the knowledge of Consequences, and dependance of one
fact upon another: by which, out of that we can presently do,
we know how to do something els when we will, or the like,
another time; Because when we see how any thing comes about,
upon what causes, and by what manner; when the like causes come
into our power, wee see how to make it produce the like effects.

Children therefore are not endued with Reason at all, till they have
attained the use of Speech: but are called Reasonable Creatures,
for the possibility apparent of having the use of Reason in time to come.
And the most part of men, though they have the use of Reasoning a
little way, as in numbring to some degree; yet it serves them
to little use in common life; in which they govern themselves,
some better, some worse, according to their differences of experience,
quicknesse of memory, and inclinations to severall ends; but specially
according to good or evill fortune, and the errors of one another.
For as for Science, or certain rules of their actions, they are
so farre from it, that they know not what it is. Geometry they have
thought Conjuring: but for other Sciences, they who have not been
taught the beginnings, and some progresse in them, that they may see
how they be acquired and generated, are in this point like children,
that having no thought of generation, are made believe by the women,
that their brothers and sisters are not born, but found in the garden.

But yet they that have no Science, are in better, and nobler condition
with their naturall Prudence; than men, that by mis-reasoning,
or by trusting them that reason wrong, fall upon false and absurd
generall rules. For ignorance of causes, and of rules, does not set
men so farre out of their way, as relying on false rules, and taking
for causes of what they aspire to, those that are not so, but rather
causes of the contrary.

To conclude, The Light of humane minds is Perspicuous Words, but by
exact definitions first snuffed, and purged from ambiguity;
Reason is the Pace; Encrease of Science, the Way; and the Benefit
of man-kind, the End. And on the contrary, Metaphors, and senslesse
and ambiguous words, are like Ignes Fatui; and reasoning upon them,
is wandering amongst innumerable absurdities; and their end,
contention, and sedition, or contempt.

Prudence & Sapience, With Their Difference
As, much Experience, is Prudence; so, is much Science, Sapience.
For though wee usually have one name of Wisedome for them both;
yet the Latines did always distinguish between Prudentia and
Sapientia, ascribing the former to Experience, the later to Science.
But to make their difference appeare more cleerly, let us suppose
one man endued with an excellent naturall use, and dexterity
in handling his armes; and another to have added to that dexterity,
an acquired Science, of where he can offend, or be offended by
his adversarie, in every possible posture, or guard: The ability of
the former, would be to the ability of the later, as Prudence to
Sapience; both usefull; but the later infallible. But they that
trusting onely to the authority of books, follow the blind blindly,
are like him that trusting to the false rules of the master of fence,
ventures praesumptuously upon an adversary, that either kills,
or disgraces him.

Signes Of Science
The signes of Science, are some, certain and infallible; some, uncertain.
Certain, when he that pretendeth the Science of any thing, can teach
the same; that is to say, demonstrate the truth thereof perspicuously
to another: Uncertain, when onely some particular events answer
to his pretence, and upon many occasions prove so as he sayes they must.
Signes of prudence are all uncertain; because to observe by experience,
and remember all circumstances that may alter the successe, is impossible.
But in any businesse, whereof a man has not infallible Science to
proceed by; to forsake his own natural judgement, and be guided by
generall sentences read in Authors, and subject to many exceptions,
is a signe of folly, and generally scorned by the name of Pedantry.
And even of those men themselves, that in Councells of the Common-wealth,
love to shew their reading of Politiques and History, very few do it in
their domestique affaires, where their particular interest is concerned;
having Prudence enough for their private affaires: but in publique
they study more the reputation of their owne wit, than the successe
of anothers businesse.



CHAPTER VI

OF THE INTERIOUR BEGINNINGS OF VOLUNTARY MOTIONS; COMMONLY CALLED
THE PASSIONS. AND THE SPEECHES BY WHICH THEY ARE EXPRESSED.


Motion Vitall And Animal
There be in Animals, two sorts of Motions peculiar to them:
One called Vitall; begun in generation, and continued without
interruption through their whole life; such as are the Course
of the Bloud, the Pulse, the Breathing, the Concoctions, Nutrition,
Excretion, &c; to which Motions there needs no help of Imagination:
The other in Animal Motion, otherwise called Voluntary Motion;
as to Go, to Speak, to Move any of our limbes, in such manner as
is first fancied in our minds. That Sense, is Motion in the organs
and interiour parts of mans body, caused by the action of the things
we See, Heare, &c.; And that Fancy is but the Reliques of the same
Motion, remaining after Sense, has been already sayd in the first
and second Chapters. And because Going, Speaking, and the like
Voluntary motions, depend alwayes upon a precedent thought of
Whither, Which Way, and What; it is evident, that the Imagination is
the first internall beginning of all Voluntary Motion. And although
unstudied men, doe not conceive any motion at all to be there,
where the thing moved is invisible; or the space it is moved in,
is (for the shortnesse of it) insensible; yet that doth not hinder,
but that such Motions are. For let a space be never so little,
that which is moved over a greater space, whereof that little one
is part, must first be moved over that. These small beginnings
of Motion, within the body of Man, before they appear in walking,
speaking, striking, and other visible actions, are commonly
called ENDEAVOUR.

Endeavour
Appetite Desire
Hunger Thirst Aversion
This Endeavour, when it is toward something which causes it,
is called APPETITE, or DESIRE; the later, being the generall name;
and the other, oftentimes restrayned to signifie the Desire of Food,
namely Hunger and Thirst. And when the Endeavour is fromward
something, it is generally called AVERSION. These words Appetite,
and Aversion we have from the Latines; and they both of them
signifie the motions, one of approaching, the other of retiring.
So also do the Greek words for the same, which are orme and aphorme.
For nature it selfe does often presse upon men those truths,
which afterwards, when they look for somewhat beyond Nature,
they stumble at. For the Schooles find in meere Appetite to go,
or move, no actuall Motion at all: but because some Motion they
must acknowledge, they call it Metaphoricall Motion; which is but
an absurd speech; for though Words may be called metaphoricall;
Bodies, and Motions cannot.

That which men Desire, they are also sayd to LOVE; and to HATE
those things, for which they have Aversion. So that Desire,
and Love, are the same thing; save that by Desire, we alwayes signifie
the Absence of the object; by Love, most commonly the Presence
of the same. So also by Aversion, we signifie the Absence; and by Hate,
the Presence of the Object.

Of Appetites, and Aversions, some are born with men; as Appetite of food,
Appetite of excretion, and exoneration, (which may also and more properly
be called Aversions, from somewhat they feele in their Bodies;) and
some other Appetites, not many. The rest, which are Appetites of
particular things, proceed from Experience, and triall of their effects
upon themselves, or other men. For of things wee know not at all,
or believe not to be, we can have no further Desire, than to tast and try.
But Aversion wee have for things, not onely which we know have hurt us;
but also that we do not know whether they will hurt us, or not.

Contempt
Those things which we neither Desire, nor Hate, we are said to Contemne:
CONTEMPT being nothing els but an immobility, or contumacy of the Heart,
in resisting the action of certain things; and proceeding from that
the Heart is already moved otherwise, by either more potent objects;
or from want of experience of them.

And because the constitution of a mans Body, is in continuall mutation;
it is impossible that all the same things should alwayes cause in him
the same Appetites, and aversions: much lesse can all men consent,
in the Desire of almost any one and the same Object.

Good Evill
But whatsoever is the object of any mans Appetite or Desire; that is it,
which he for his part calleth Good: And the object of his Hate,
and Aversion, evill; And of his contempt, Vile, and Inconsiderable.
For these words of Good, evill, and Contemptible, are ever used
with relation to the person that useth them: There being nothing
simply and absolutely so; nor any common Rule of Good and evill,
to be taken from the nature of the objects themselves; but from
the Person of the man (where there is no Common-wealth;) or,
(in a Common-wealth,) From the Person that representeth it;
or from an Arbitrator or Judge, whom men disagreeing shall by
consent set up, and make his sentence the Rule thereof.