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Books: The Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley Volume 3

L >> Leonard Huxley >> The Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley Volume 3




Both these subjects lie at the root of modern advances in vertebrate
morphology.

Concerning the skull, he was in the '80's back to it with a will. His
line of attack was through the lampreys and hags and the higher
cartilaginous fishes, and he was following up a revolutionary
conception (already hinted at in his Hunterian Lectures in 1864, and
later in a Royal Society paper on Amphioxus in 1875), that the
trabeculae cranii, judged by their relationships to the nerves, may
represent a pair of prae-oral visceral arches. In his unpublished notes
there is evidence that he was bringing to the support of this
conclusion the discovery of a supposed 4th branch to the trigeminal
nerve--the relationships of this (which he proposed to term the
"hyporhinal" or palato-nasal division) and the ophthalmic (to have been
termed the "orbitonasal" (A term already applied by him in 1875 to the
corresponding nerve in the Batrachia. ("Encyclopaedia Britannica" 9th
edition, volume 1 article "Amphibia."))) to the trabecular arch and a
supposed prae-mandibular visceral cleft, being regarded as repetitional
of those of the maxillary and mandibular divisions to the mandibular
cleft. So far as I am aware, von Kupffer is the only observer who has
given this startling conclusion support, in his famous "Studien" (Hf.
I. Kopf Acipenser, Munchen, 1893), and from the nature of other recent
work on the genesis of parts of the cranium hitherto thought to be
wholly trabecular in origin, it might well be further upheld. As for
the discovery of the nerve, I have been lately much interested to find
that Mr. E. Phelps Allis, junior, an investigator who has done grand
work in Cranial Morphology, has recently and independently arrived at a
similar result. It was while working in my laboratory in July last that
he mentioned the fact to me. Remembering that your father had published
the aforementioned hints on the subject, and recalling conversations I
had with him, it occurred to me to look into his unpublished
manuscripts (then being sorted), if perchance he had gone further. And,
behold! there is a lengthy attempt to write the matter up in full, in
which, among other things, he was seeking to show that, on this basis,
the mode of termination of the notochord in the Craniata, and in the
Branchiostomidae (in which the trabecular arch is undifferentiated), is
readily explained. Mr. Allis's studies are now progressing, and I have
arranged with him that if, in the end, his results come sufficiently
close to your father's, he shall give his work due recognition and
publicity. (See "The Lateral Sensory Canals, the Eye-Muscles, and the
Peripheral Distribution of certain of the Cranial Nerves of Mustelus
laevis" by Edward Phelps Allis, junior, reprinted from "Quarterly
Journal Micr. S." volume 45 part 2 New Series.)

Among his schemes of the early '80's, there was actually commenced a
work on the principles of Mammalian Anatomy and an Elementary Treatise
on the Vertebrata. The former exists in the shape of a number of
drawings with very brief notes, the latter to a slight extent only in
manuscript. In the former, intended for the medical student and as a
means of familiarising him with the anatomical "tree" as distinct from
its surgical "leaves," your father once again returned to the skull,
and he leaves a scheme for a revised terminology of its nerve exits
worthy his best and most clear-headed endeavours of the past.
(Concerning this he wrote to Professor Howes in 1890 when giving him
permission to denote two papers which he was about to present to the
Zoological Society, as the first which emanated from the Huxley
Research Laboratory]:--"Pray do as you think best about the
nomenclature. I remember when I began to work at the skull it seemed a
hopeless problem, and years elapsed before I got hold of the clue."
[And six weeks later, he writes]:--"You are always welcome to turn
anything of mine to account, though I vow I do not just now recollect
anything about the terms you mention. If you were to examine me in my
own papers, I believe I should be plucked.") [And well do I remember
how, in the '80's, both in the class-room and in conversation, he would
emphasise the fact that the hypoglossus nerve roots of the mammal arise
serially with the ventral roots of the spinal nerves, little thinking
that the discovery by Froriep, in 1886, of their dorsal ganglionated
counterparts, would establish the actual homology between the two, and
by leading to the conclusion that though actual vertebrae do not
contribute to the formation of the mammalian skull, its occipital
region is of truncal origin, mark the most revolutionary advance in
cranial morphology since his own of 1856.

Much of the final zoological work of his life lay with the Bony Fishes,
and he leaves unfinished (indeed only just commenced) a memoir
embodying a new scheme of classification of these, which shows that he
was intending to do for them what he did for Birds in the most active
period of his career. It was my good fortune to have helped as a hodman
in the study of these creatures, with a view to a Text-book we were to
have written conjointly, and as I realise what he was intending to make
out of the dry facts, I am filled with grief at the thought of what we
must have lost. His classification was based on the labours of years,
as testified by a vast accumulation of rough notes and sketches, and as
a conspicuous feature of it there stands the embodiment under one head
of all those fishes having the swim-bladder in connection with the
auditory organ by means of a chain of ossicles--a revolutionary
arrangement, which later, in the hands of the late Dr. Sagemahl, and by
his introduction of the famous term--"Ostariophyseae," has done more
than all else of recent years to clear the Ichthyological air. Your
father had anticipated this unpublished, and in a proposal to unite the
Herrings and Pikes into a single group, the "Clupesoces," he had
further given promise of a new system, based on the study of the
structure of the fins, jaws, and reproductive organs of the Bony
Fishes, the classifications of which are still largely chaotic, which
would have been as revolutionary as it was rational. New terms both in
taxonomy and anatomy were contemplated, and in part framed. His
published terms "Elasmo-" and "Cysto-arian" are the adjective form of
two--far-reaching and significant--which give an idea of what was to
have come. Similarly, the spinose fin-rays were to have been termed
"acanthonemes," the branching and multiarticulate "arthronemes," and
those of the more elementary and "adipose fin" type "protonemes": and
had he lived to complete the task, I question whether it would not have
excelled his earlier achievements.

The Rabbit was to have been the subject of the first of the
aforementioned books, and in the desire to get at the full meaning of
problems which arose during its progress, he was led to digress into a
general anatomical survey of the Rodentia, and in testimony to this
there remain five or six books of rough notes bearing dates 1880 to
1884, and a series of finished pencil-drawings, which, as works of art
and accurate delineations of fact, are among the most finished
productions of his hand. In the same manner his contemplated work upon
the Vertebrata led him during 1879-1880 to renewed investigation of the
anatomy of some of the more aberrant orders. Especially as concerning
the Marsupialia and Edentata was this the case, and to the end in view
he secured living specimens of the Vulpine Phalanger, and purchased of
the Zoological Society the Sloths and Ant-eaters which during that
period died in their Gardens. These he carefully dissected, and he
leaves among his papers a series of incomplete notes (fullest as
concerning the Phalanger and Cape Anteater [Orycteropus] ([I was
privileged to assist in the dissection of the latter animal, and well
do I remember how, when by means of a blow-pipe he had inflated the
bladder, intent on determining its limit of distensibility, the organ
burst, with unpleasant results, which called forth the remark] "I think
we'll leave it at that!")), which were never finished up.

They prove that he intended the production of special monographs on the
anatomy of these peculiar mammalian forms, as he did on members of
other orders which he had less fully investigated, and on the more
important groups of fishes alluded to in the earlier part of my letter;
and there seems no doubt, from the collocation of dates and study of
the order of the events, that his memorable paper "On the Application
of the Laws of Evolution to the arrangement of the Vertebrata, and more
particularly of the Mammalia," published in the "Proceedings of the
Zoological Society" for 1880,--the most masterly among his scientific
theses--was the direct outcome of this intention, the only expression
which he gave to the world of the interaction of a series of
revolutionary ideas and conceptions (begotten of the labours of his
closing years as a working zoologist) which were at the period assuming
shape in his mind. They have done more than all else of their period to
rationalise the application of our knowledge of the Vertebrata, and
have now left their mark for all time on the history of progress, as
embodied in our classificatory systems.

He was in 1882 extending his important observations upon the
respiratory apparatus from birds to reptiles, with results which show
him to have been keenly appreciative of the existence of fundamental
points of similarity between the Avian and Chelonian types--a field
which has been more recently independently opened up by Milani.

Nor must it be imagined that after the publication of his ideal work on
the Crayfishes in 1880, he had forsaken the Invertebrata. On the
contrary, during the late '70's, and on till 1882, he accumulated a
considerable number of drawings (as usual with brief notes), on the
Mollusca. Some are rough, others beautiful in every respect, and among
the more conspicuous outcomes of the work are some detailed
observations on the nervous system, and an attempt to formulate a new
terminology of orientation of the Acephalous Molluscan body. The period
embraces that of his research upon the Spirula of the "Challenger"
expedition, since published; and incidentally to this he also
accumulated a series of valuable drawings, with explanatory notes, of
Cephalopod anatomy, which, as accurate records of fact, are unsurpassed.

As you are aware, he was practically the founder of the Anthropological
Institute. Here again, in the late '60's and early '70's, he was most
clearly contemplating a far-reaching inquiry into the physical
anthropology of all races of mankind. There remain in testimony to this
some 400 to 500 photographs (which I have had carefully arranged in
order and registered), most of them of the nude figure standing erect,
with the arm extended against a scale. A desultory correspondence
proves that in connection with these he was in treaty with British
residents and agents all over the world, with the Admiralty and naval
officers, and that all was being done with a fixed idea in view. He was
clearly contemplating something exhaustive and definite which he never
fulfilled, and the method is now the more interesting from its being
essentially the same as that recently and independently adopted by
Mortillet.

Beyond this, your father's notes reveal numerous other indications of
matters and phases of activity, of great interest in their bearings on
the history and progress of contemporary investigation, but these are
of a detailed and wholly technical order.


APPENDIX 2.

His administrative work as an officer of the Royal Society is described
in the following note by Sir Joseph Hooker:--

Mr. Huxley was appointed Joint-Secretary of the Royal Society, November
30, 1871, in succession to Dr. Sharpey, Sir George Airy being
President, and Professor (now Sir George) Stokes, Senior Secretary. He
held the office till November 30, 1880. The duties of the office are
manifold and heavy; they include attendance at all the meetings of the
Fellows, and of the councils, committees, and sub-committees of the
Society, and especially the supervision of the printing and
illustrating all papers on biological subjects that are published in
the Society's Transactions and Proceedings: the latter often involving
a protracted correspondence with the authors. To this must be added a
share in the supervision of the staff of officers, of the library and
correspondence, and the details of house-keeping.

The appointment was well-timed in the interest of the Society, for the
experience he had obtained as an officer in the Surveying Expedition of
Captain Stanley rendered his co-operation and advice of the greatest
value in the efforts which the Society had recently commenced to induce
the Government, through the Admiralty especially, to undertake the
physical and biological exploration of the ocean. It was but a few
months before his appointment that he had been placed upon a committee
of the Society, through which H.M.S. "Porcupine" was employed for this
purpose in the European seas, and negotiations had already been
commenced with the Admiralty for a voyage of circumnavigation with the
same objects, which eventuated in the "Challenger" Expedition.

In the first year of his appointment, the equipment of the
"Challenger", and selection of its officers, was entrusted to the Royal
Society, and in the preparation of the instructions to the naturalists
Mr. Huxley had a dominating responsibility. In the same year a
correspondence commenced with the India Office on the subject of
deep-sea dredging in the Indian Ocean (it came to nothing), and another
with the Royal Geographical Society on that of a North Polar
Expedition, which resulted in the Nares Expedition (1875). In 1873,
another with the Admiralty on the advisability of appointing
naturalists to accompany two of the expeditions about to be despatched
for observing the transit of Venus across the sun's disk in Mauritius
and Kerguelen, which resulted in three naturalists being appointed.
Arduous as was the correspondence devolving on the Biological
Secretary, through the instructing and instalment of these two
expeditions, it was as nothing compared with the official,
demi-official, and private, with the Government and individuals, that
arose from the Government request that the Royal Society should arrange
for the publication and distribution of the enormous collections
brought home by the above-named expedition. It is not too much to say
that Mr. Huxley had a voice in every detail of these publications. The
sittings of the Committee of Publication of the "Challenger" Expedition
collections (of which Sir J.D. Hooker was chairman, and Mr. Huxley the
most active member) were protracted from 1876 to 1895, and resulted in
the publication of fifty royal quarto volumes, with plates, maps,
sections, etc., the work of seventy-six authors, every shilling of the
expenditure on which (some 50,000 pounds) was passed under the
authority of the Committee of Publication.

Nor was Mr. Huxley less actively interested in the domestic affairs of
the Society. In 1873 the whole establishment was translated from the
building subsequently occupied by the Royal Academy to that which it
now inhabits in the same quadrangle; a flitting of library stuff and
appurtenances involving great responsibilities on the officers for the
satisfactory re-establishment of the whole institution. In 1874 a very
important alteration of the bye-laws was effected, whereby that which
gave to Peers the privilege of being proposed for election as Fellows,
without previous selection by the Committee (and to which bye-laws, as
may be supposed, Mr. Huxley was especially repugnant), was replaced by
one restricting that privilege to Privy Councillors. In 1875 he
actively supported a proposition for extending the interests taken in
the Society by holding annually a reception, to which the lady friends
of the Fellows who were interested in science should be invited to
inspect an exhibition of some of the more recent inventions,
appliances, and discoveries in science. And in the same year another
reform took place in which he was no less interested, which was the
abolition of the entrance fees for ordinary Fellows, which had proved a
bar to the coming forward of men of small incomes, but great eminence.
The loss of income to the Society from this was met by a subscription
of no less than 10,666 pounds, raised almost entirely amongst the
Fellows themselves for the purpose.

In 1876 a responsibility, that fell heavily on the Secretaries, was the
allotment annually of a grant by the Treasury of 4000 pounds, to be
expended, under the direction of the Royal and other learned societies,
on the advancement of science. (It is often called a grant to the Royal
Society. This is an error. The Royal Society, as such, in no way
participates in this grant. The Society makes grants from funds in its
own possession only.) Every detail of the business of this grant is
undertaken by a large committee of the Royal and other scientific
societies, which meets in the Society's rooms, and where all the
business connected with the grant is conducted and the records kept.


APPENDIX 3.

LIST OF ESSAYS, BOOKS, AND SCIENTIFIC MEMOIRS, BY T.H. HUXLEY.


ESSAYS.

"The Darwinian Hypothesis." ("Times" December 26, 1859.) "Collected
Essays" 2.

"On the Educational Value of the Natural History Sciences." (An Address
delivered at St. Martin's Hall, on July 22, 1854, and published as a
pamphlet in that year.) "Lay Sermons"; "Collected Essays" 3.

"Time and Life." ("Macmillan's Magazine" December 1859.)

"The Origin of Species." (The "Westminster Review" April 1860.) "Lay
Sermons"; "Collected Essays" 2.

"A Lobster: or the Study of Zoology." (A Lecture delivered at the South
Kensington Museum in 1861, and subsequently published by the Department
of Science and Art. Original title, "On the Study of Zoology.") "Lay
Sermons"; "Collected Essays" 8.

"Geological Contemporaneity and Persistent Types of Life." (The
Anniversary Address to the Geological Society for 1862.) "Lay Sermons";
"Collected Essays" 8.

"Six Lectures to Working Men on Our Knowledge of the Causes of the
Phenomena of Organic Nature, 1863." "Collected Essays" 2.

"Man's Place in Nature," see List of Books. Republished, "Collected
Essays" 7.

"Criticisms on 'The Origin of Species.'" (The "Natural History Review"
1864.) "Lay Sermons"; "Collected Essays" 3.

"Emancipation--Black and White." (The "Reader" May 20, 1865.) "Lay
Sermons"; "Collected Essays" 3.

"On the Methods and Results of Ethnology." (The "Fortnightly Review"
1865.) "Critiques and Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 7.

"On the Advisableness of Improving Natural Knowledge." (A Lay Sermon
delivered in St. Martin's Hall, January 7, 1866, and subsequently
published in the "Fortnightly Review".) "Lay Sermons"; "Collected
Essays" 1.

"A Liberal Education: and where to find it." (An Address to the South
London Working Men's College, delivered January 4, 1868, and
subsequently published in "Macmillan's Magazine".) "Lay Sermons";
"Collected Essays" 3.

"On a Piece of Chalk." (A Lecture delivered to the working men of
Norwich, during the meeting of the British Association, in 1868.
Subsequently published in "Macmillan's Magazine".) "Lay Sermons";
"Collected Essays" 8.

"On the Physical Basis of Life." (A Lay Sermon, delivered in Edinburgh,
on Sunday, November 8, 1868, at the request of the late Reverend James
Cranbrook; subsequently published in the "Fortnightly Review".) "Lay
Sermons"; "Collected Essays" 1.

"The Scientific Aspects of Positivism." (A Reply to Mr. Congreve's
Attack upon the Preceding Paper. Published in the "Fortnightly Review"
1869.) "Lay Sermons".

"The Genealogy of Animals." (A Review of Haeckel's "Naturliche
Schopfungs-Geschichte". The "Academy" 1869.) "Critiques and Addresses";
"Collected Essays" 2.

"Geological Reform." (The Anniversary Address to the Geological Society
for 1869.) "Lay Sermons"; "Collected Essays" 8.

"Scientific Education: Notes of an After-Dinner Speech." (Delivered
before the Liverpool Philomathic Society in April 1869, and
subsequently published in "Macmillan's Magazine".) "Lay Sermons";
"Collected Essays" 3.

"On Descartes' 'Discourse touching the Method of using one's Reason
rightly, and of seeking Scientific Truth.'" (An Address to the
Cambridge Young Men's Christian Society, delivered on March 24, 1870,
and subsequently published in "Macmillan's Magazine".) "Lay Sermons";
"Collected Essays" 1.

"On some Fixed Points in British Ethnology." (The "Contemporary Review"
July 1870.) "Critiques and Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 7.

"Biogenesis and Abiogenesis." (The Presidential Address to the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, 1870.) "Critiques and
Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 8.

"Paleontology and the Doctrine of Evolution." (The Presidential Address
to the Geological Society, 1870.) "Critiques and Addresses"; "Collected
Essays" 8.

"On Medical Education." (An Address to the Students of the Faculty of
Medicine in University College, London, 1870.) "Critiques and
Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 3.

"On Coral and Coral Reefs." ("Good Words" 1870.) "Critiques and
Addresses".

"The School Boards: What they can do, and what they may do." (The
"Contemporary Review" December 1870.) "Critiques and Addresses";
"Collected Essays" 3.

"Administrative Nihilism." (An Address delivered to the Members of the
Midland Institute, on October 9, 1871, and subsequently published in
the "Fortnightly Review".) "Critiques and Addresses"; "Collected
Essays" 1.

"Mr. Darwin's Critics." (The "Contemporary Review" November 1871.)
"Critiques and Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 2.

"On the Formation of Coal." (A Lecture delivered before the Members of
the Bradford Philosophical Institution, December 29, 1871, and
subsequently published in the "Contemporary Review".) "Critiques and
Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 8.

"Yeast." (The "Contemporary Review" December 1871.) "Critiques and
Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 8.

"Bishop Berkeley on the Metaphysics of Sensation." ("Macmillan's
Magazine" June 1871.) "Critiques and Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 6.

"The Problems of the Deep Sea" (1873). "Collected Essays" 8.

"Universities: Actual and Ideal." (The Inaugural Address of the Lord
Rector of the University of Aberdeen, February 27, 1874. "Contemporary
Review" 1874.) "Science and Culture"; "Collected Essays" 3.

"Joseph Priestley." (An Address delivered on the Occasion of the
Presentation of a Statue of Priestley to the Town of Birmingham on
August 1, 1874.) "Science and Culture"; "Collected Essays" 3.

"On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History." (An
Address delivered at the Meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, at Belfast, 1874.) "Science and Culture";
"Collected Essays" 1.

"On some of the Results of the Expedition of H.M.S. 'Challenger'" 1875.
"Collected Essays" 8.

"On the Border Territory between the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms."
(An Evening Lecture at the Royal Institution, Friday, January 28, 1876.
"Macmillan's Magazine" 1876.) "Science and Culture"; "Collected Essays"
8.

"Three Lectures on Evolution." (New York, September 18, 20, 22, 1876.)
"American Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 4.

"Address on University Education." (Delivered at the opening of the
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, September 12, 1876.) "American
Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 3.

"On the Study of Biology." (A Lecture in connection with the Loan
Collection of Scientific Apparatus at South Kensington Museum, December
16, 1876.) "American Addresses"; "Collected Essays" 3.

"Elementary Instruction in Physiology." (Read at the Meeting of the
Domestic Economy Congress at Birmingham, 1877.) "Science and Culture";
"Collected Essays" 3.

"Technical Education." (An Address delivered to the Working Men's Club
and Institute, December 1, 1877.) "Science and Culture"; "Collected
Essays" 3.

"Evolution in Biology." (The "Encyclopaedia Britannica" ninth edition
volume 8 1878.) "Science and Culture"; "Collected Essays" 2.

"Hume," 1878. "Collected Essays" 6. See also under "Books."

"On Sensation and the Unity of Structure of the Sensiferous Organs."
(An Evening Lecture at the Royal Institution, Friday, March 7, 1879.)
"Nineteenth Century" April 1879. "Science and Culture"; "Collected
Essays" 6.

"Prefatory Note to the Translation of E. Haeckel's Freedom in Science
and Teaching," 1879. (Kegan Paul.)

"On Certain Errors respecting the Structure of the Heart attributed to
Aristotle." "Nature" November 6, 1879. "Science and Culture".

"The Coming of Age of 'The Origin of Species.'" (An Evening Lecture at
the Royal Institution, Friday, April 9, 1880.) "Science and Culture";
"Collected Essays" 2.

"On the Method of Zadig." (A Lecture delivered at the Working Men's
College, Great Ormond Street, 1880. "Nineteenth Century" June 1880.)
"Science and Culture"; "Collected Essays" 4.