Books: How to Speak and Write Correctly

J >> Joseph Devlin >> How to Speak and Write Correctly

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An _Apostrophe_ (from the Greek _apo_, from, and _strephein_, to turn),
is a direct address to the absent as present, to the inanimate as living,
or to the abstract as personal. Thus: "O, illustrious Washington! Father
of our Country! Could you visit us now!"

"My Country tis of thee--
Sweet land of liberty,
Of thee I sing."

"O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy sting!" This
figure is very closely allied to Personification.

_Vision_ (from the Latin _videre_, to see) consists in treating the past,
the future, or the remote as if present in time or place. It is appropriate
to animated description, as it produces the effect of an ideal presence.
"The old warrior looks down from the canvas and tells us to be men worthy
of our sires."

This figure is much exemplified in the Bible. The book of Revelation is a
vision of the future. The author who uses the figure most is Carlyle.

An _Antithesis_ (from the Greek _anti_, against, and _tithenai_, to set)
is founded on contrast; it consists in putting two unlike things in such
a position that each will appear more striking by the contrast.

"Ring out the old, ring in the new,
Ring out the false, ring in the true."

"Let us be _friends_ in peace, but _enemies_ in war."

Here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam engine--"It can
engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate metal before it; draw out,
without breaking, a thread as fine as a gossamer; and lift up a ship of
war like a bauble in the air; it can embroider muslin and forge anchors;
cut steel into ribands, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of
winds and waves."

_Climax_ (from the Greek, _klimax_, a ladder), is an arrangement of
thoughts and ideas in a series, each part of which gets stronger and more
impressive until the last one, which emphasizes the force of all the
preceding ones. "He risked truth, he risked honor, he risked fame, he
risked all that men hold dear,--yea, he risked life itself, and for
what?--for a creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he
was his better self."

_Epigram_ (from the Greek _epi_, upon, and _graphein_, to write),
originally meant an inscription on a monument, hence it came to signify
any pointed expression. It now means a statement or any brief saying in
prose or poetry in which there is an apparent contradiction; as,
"Conspicuous for his absence." "Beauty when unadorned is most adorned."
"He was too foolish to commit folly." "He was so wealthy that he could
not spare the money."

_Interrogation_ (from the Latin _interrogatio_, a question), is a figure
of speech in which an assertion is made by asking a question; as, "Does
God not show justice to all?" "Is he not doing right in his course?"
"What can a man do under the circumstances?"

_Irony_ (from the Greek _eironcia_, dissimulation) is a form of expression
in which the opposite is substituted for what is intended, with the end in
view, that the falsity or absurdity may be apparent; as, "Benedict Arnold
was an _honorable_ man." "A Judas Iscariot never _betrays_ a friend." "You
can always _depend_ upon the word of a liar."

Irony is cousin germain to _ridicule_, _derision_, _mockery_, _satire_
and _sarcasm_. _Ridicule_ implies laughter mingled with contempt;
_derision_ is ridicule from a personal feeling of hostility; _mockery_ is
insulting derision; _satire_ is witty mockery; _sarcasm_ is bitter satire
and _irony_ is disguised satire.

There are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to language
and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning different from
their ordinary signification in common every-day speech and writing. The
golden rule for all is to _keep them in harmony with the character and
purpose of speech and composition_.

CHAPTER V

PUNCTUATION

Principal Points--Illustrations--Capital Letters.

Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for punctuation,
but most of them have been broken long since and thrown into the junk-heap
of disuse. They were too rigid, too strict, went so much into _minutiae_,
that they were more or less impractical to apply to ordinary composition.
The manner of language, of style and of expression has considerably
changed since then, the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden
meanings has been relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or
long-drawn-out phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the aim is
toward terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore, punctuation has been
greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed, that it is now as much a
matter of good taste and judgment as adherence to any fixed set of rules.
Nevertheless there are laws governing it which cannot be abrogated, their
principles must be rigidly and inviolably observed.

The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection and
the dependence of the parts of a composition, but not the actual pauses
made in speaking. Very often the points used to denote the delivery of a
passage differ from those used when the passage is written. Nevertheless,
several of the punctuation marks serve to bring out the rhetorical force
of expression.

The principal marks of punctuation are:

1. The Comma [,]

2. The Semicolon [;]

3. The Colon [:]

4. The Period [.]

5. The Interrogation [?]

6. The Exclamation [!]

7. The Dash [--]

8. The Parenthesis [()]

9. The Quotation [" "]

There are several other points or marks to indicate various relations,
but properly speaking such come under the heading of Printer's Marks,
some of which are treated elsewhere.

Of the above, the first four may be styled the grammatical points, and
the remaining five, the rhetorical points.

The _Comma_: The office of the Comma is to show the slightest separation
which calls for punctuation at all. It should be omitted whenever
possible. It is used to mark the least divisions of a sentence.

(1) A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas:--
"Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to him." "The brave,
daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If the series is in pairs,
commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, learned and unlearned, black
and white, Christian and Jew, Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through
the same gate."

(2) A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry who
said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'"

(3) When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a comma
is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the God I
love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black coat and a
sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian."

(4) An expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas: "The
old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk."

(5) Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, the President,
was assassinated."

(6) Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book,
which is the simplest, is often the most profound."

(7) In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma:
"Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains, drives
the engines of our mills and factories."

(8) When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a great
statesman; Grant, a great soldier."

(9) The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are a good
man."

(10) In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three figures:
"Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000 dollars."

The _Semicolon_ marks a slighter connection than the comma. It is
generally confined to separating the parts of compound sentences. It is
much used in contrasts:

(1) "Gladstone was great as a statesman; he was sublime as a man."

(2) The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound sentences in
which the grammatical subject of the second part is different from that
of the first: "The power of England relies upon the wisdom of her
statesmen; the power of America upon the strength of her army and navy."

(4) The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which introduce
particulars or specifications following after, such as, _namely, as,
e.g., vid., i.e., etc._: "He had three defects; namely, carelessness,
lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas." "An island is a
portion of land entirely surrounded by water; as Cuba." "The names of
cities should always commence with a capital letter; _e.g._, New York,
Paris." "The boy was proficient in one branch; viz., Mathematics."
"No man is perfect; i.e., free from all blemish."

The _Colon_ except in conventional uses is practically obsolete.

(1) It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long
quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as follows:"

(2) It is placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject
under consideration: "This is the meaning of the term:"

(3) A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a
colon: "The great orator made this funny remark:"

(4) The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or
subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction
_or_ is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of Sound."

(5) It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: "Sir: My
dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mr. Jones:" etc. In this connection a dash very
often follows the colon.

(6) It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things
already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late were:
firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on an errand,
thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the wayside."

The _Period_ is the simplest punctuation mark. It is simply used to mark
the end of a complete sentence that is neither interrogative nor
exclamatory.

(1) After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly."
"Plants grow." "Man is mortal."

(2) In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C.
Alexander, D.D., L.L.D.

(3) A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of the
book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint: _American
Trails_. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner Company.

The _Mark of Interrogation_ is used to ask or suggest a question.

(1) Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not expected,
should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has not heard of
Napoleon?"

(2) When several questions have a common dependence they should be
followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: "Where
now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the laughing boys; the
winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I loved?"

(3) The mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In 1893 (?)
Gladstone became converted to Home Rule for Ireland."

The _Exclamation_ point should be sparingly used, particularly in prose.
Its chief use is to denote emotion of some kind.

(1) It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as
interjections: "Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely landscape!"

(2) Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge,
Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!"

(3) When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be
used: "Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!"

The _Dash_ is generally confined to cases where there is a sudden break
from the general run of the passage. Of all the punctuation marks it is
the most misused.

(1) It is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or
sentiment: "The Heroes of the Civil War,--how we cherish them." "He was a
fine fellow--in his own opinion."

(2) When a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect, a dash
is used to introduce the repetition: "Shakespeare was the greatest of all
poets--Shakespeare, the intellectual ocean whose waves washed the
continents of all thought."

(3) The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it: "He
is an excellent man but--"

(4) It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the
natural outcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the bowels
of the earth and found instead of the hidden treasure--a button."

(5) It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures: "J--n J--s"
for John Jones; 1908-9 for 1908 and 1909; Matthew VII:5-8 for Matthew
VII:5, 6, 7, and 8.

(6) When an ellipsis of the words, _namely, that is, to wit_, etc., takes
place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in three branches--
arithmetic, algebra, and geometry."

(7) A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it is
undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a r----l (rascal).
This is especially the case in profane words.

(8) Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a dash:
"All the world's a stage."--_Shakespeare_.

(9) When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they should
be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes, Sir.--Do you love study?
I do."

_Marks of Parenthesis_ are used to separate expressions inserted in the
body of a sentence, which are illustrative of the meaning, but have no
essential connection with the sentence, and could be done without. They
should be used as little as possible for they show that something is
being brought into a sentence that does not belong to it.

(1) When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the break
should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar (and Jones
is one), even when he speaks the truth."

(2) In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote
interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The masses
must not submit to the tyranny of the classes (hear, hear), we must show
the trust magnates (groans), that they cannot ride rough-shod over our
dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman from Ohio (Mr. Brown), will
not be our spokesman, we must select another. (A voice,--Get Robinson)."

When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is
required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When
inserted at a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter
relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used before each
parenthesis; if it relates to a single word, or short clause, no stop
should come before it, but a comma should be put after the closing
parenthesis.

The _Quotation marks_ are used to show that the words enclosed by them
are borrowed.

(1) A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation marks:
Abraham Lincoln said,--"I shall make this land too hot for the feet of
slaves."

(2) When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained quotation
has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to believe 'honesty
is the best policy.'"

(3) When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation marks
should precede each paragraph.

(4) Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are
quoted.

(5) Often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion for it.

The _Apostrophe_ should come under the comma rather than under the
quotation marks or double comma. The word is Greek and signifies a turning
away from. The letter elided or turned away is generally an _e_. In poetry
and familiar dialogue the apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable, as
"I've for I have"; "Thou'rt for thou art"; "you'll for you will," etc.
Sometimes it is necessary to abbreviate a word by leaving out several
letters. In such case the apostrophe takes the place of the omitted letters
as "cont'd for continued." The apostrophe is used to denote the elision of
the century in dates, where the century is understood or to save the
repetition of a series of figures, as "The Spirit of '76"; "I served in the
army during the years 1895, '96, '97, '98 and '99." The principal use of
the apostrophe is to denote the possessive case. All nouns in the singular
number whether proper names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with
any other letter than _s_, form the possessive by the addition of the
apostrophe and the letter _s_. The only exceptions to this rule are, that,
by poetical license the additional _s_ may be elided in poetry for sake of
the metre, and in the scriptural phrases "For goodness' sake." "For
conscience' sake," "For Jesus' sake," etc. Custom has done away with the
_s_ and these phrases are now idioms of the language. All plural nouns
ending in _s_ form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe only as
boys', horses'. The possessive case of the personal pronouns never take the
apostrophe, as ours, yours, hers, theirs.

CAPITAL LETTERS

_Capital letters_ are used to give emphasis to or call attention to
certain words to distinguish them from the context. In manuscripts they
may be written small or large and are indicated by lines drawn
underneath, two lines for SMALL CAPITALS and three lines for CAPITALS.

Some authors, notably Carlyle, make such use of Capitals that it
degenerates into an abuse. They should only be used in their proper
places as given in the table below.

(1) The first word of every sentence, in fact the first word in writing
of any kind should begin with a capital; as, "Time flies." "My dear
friend."

(2) Every direct quotation should begin with a capital; "Dewey said,--
'Fire, when you're ready, Gridley!'"

(3) Every direct question commences with a capital; "Let me ask you;
'How old are you?'"

(4) Every line of poetry begins with a capital; "Breathes there a man
with soul so dead?"

(5) Every numbered clause calls for a capital: "The witness asserts: (1)
That he saw the man attacked; (2) That he saw him fall; (3) That he
saw his assailant flee."

(6) The headings of essays and chapters should be wholly in capitals; as,
CHAPTER VIII--RULES FOR USE OF CAPITALS.

(7) In the titles of books, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs
should begin with a capital; as, "Johnson's Lives of the Poets."

(8) In the Roman notation numbers are denoted by capitals; as, I II III V
X L C D M--1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000.

(9) Proper names begin with a capital; as, "Jones, Johnson, Caesar, Mark
Antony, England, Pacific, Christmas."

Such words as river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally are common,
not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such are used with an
adjective or adjunct to specify a particular object they become proper
names, and therefore require a capital; as, "Mississippi River, North
Sea, Alleghany Mountains," etc. In like manner the cardinal points north,
south, east and west, when they are used to distinguish regions of a
country are capitals; as, "The North fought against the South."

When a proper name is compounded with another word, the part which is not
a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes, but with a small
letter if it follows, the hyphen; as "Post-homeric," "Sunday-school."

(10) Words derived from proper names require a Capital; as, "American,
Irish, Christian, Americanize, Christianize."

In this connection the names of political parties, religious sects and
schools of thought begin with capitals; as, "Republican, Democrat, Whig,
Catholic, Presbyterian, Rationalists, Free Thinkers."

(11) The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with a
capital; as, "President, Chairman, Governor, Alderman."

(12) The abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for
capitals; as, "LL.D., M.A., B.S.," etc. Also the seats of learning
conferring such degrees as, "Harvard University, Manhattan College," etc.

(13) When such relative words as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle,
aunt, etc., precede a proper name, they are written and printed with
capitals; as, Father Abraham, Mother Eddy, Brother John, Sister Jane,
Uncle Jacob, Aunt Eliza. Father, when used to denote the early Christian
writer, is begun with a capital; "Augustine was one of the learned
Fathers of the Church."

(14) The names applied to the Supreme Being begin with capitals: "God,
Lord, Creator, Providence, Almighty, The Deity, Heavenly Father, Holy
One." In this respect the names applied to the Saviour also require
capitals: "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Man of Galilee, The Crucified, The
Anointed One." Also the designations of Biblical characters as "Lily of
Israel, Rose of Sharon, Comfortress of the Afflicted, Help of Christians,
Prince of the Apostles, Star of the Sea," etc. Pronouns referring to God
and Christ take capitals; as, "His work, The work of Him, etc."

(15) Expressions used to designate the Bible or any particular division
of it begin with a capital; as, "Holy Writ, The Sacred Book, Holy Book,
God's Word, Old Testament, New Testament, Gospel of St. Matthew, Seven
Penitential Psalms."

(16) Expressions based upon the Bible or in reference to Biblical
characters begin with a capital: "Water of Life, Hope of Men, Help of
Christians, Scourge of Nations."

(17) The names applied to the Evil One require capitals: "Beelzebub,
Prince of Darkness, Satan, King of Hell, Devil, Incarnate Fiend, Tempter
of Men, Father of Lies, Hater of Good."

(18) Words of very special importance, especially those which stand out
as the names of leading events in history, have capitals; as, "The
Revolution, The Civil War, The Middle Ages, The Age of Iron," etc.

(19) Terms which refer to great events in the history of the race require
capitals; "The Flood, Magna Charta, Declaration of Independence."

(20) The names of the days of the week and the months of the year and the
seasons are commenced with capitals: "Monday, March, Autumn."

(21) The Pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ always require the use of
capitals. In fact all the interjections when uttered as exclamations
commence with capitals: "Alas! he is gone." "Ah! I pitied him."

(22) All _noms-de-guerre_, assumed names, as well as names given for
distinction, call for capitals, as, "The Wizard of the North," "Paul
Pry," "The Northern Gael," "Sandy Sanderson," "Poor Robin," etc.

(23) In personification, that is, when inanimate things are represented
as endowed with life and action, the noun or object personified begins
with a capital; as, "The starry Night shook the dews from her wings."
"Mild-eyed Day appeared," "The Oak said to the Beech--'I am stronger
than you.'"

CHAPTER VI

LETTER WRITING

Principles of Letter-Writing--Forms--Notes

Many people seem to regard letter-writing as a very simple and easily
acquired branch, but on the contrary it is one of the most difficult
forms of composition and requires much patience and labor to master its
details. In fact there are very few perfect letter-writers in the
language. It constitutes the direct form of speech and may be called
conversation at a distance. Its forms are so varied by every conceivable
topic written at all times by all kinds of persons in all kinds of moods
and tempers and addressed to all kinds of persons of varying degrees in
society and of different pursuits in life, that no fixed rules can be
laid down to regulate its length, style or subject matter. Only general
suggestions can be made in regard to scope and purpose, and the forms of
indicting set forth which custom and precedent have sanctioned.

The principles of letter-writing should be understood by everybody who
has any knowledge of written language, for almost everybody at some time
or other has necessity to address some friend or acquaintance at a
distance, whereas comparatively few are called upon to direct their
efforts towards any other kind of composition.

Formerly the illiterate countryman, when he had occasion to communicate
with friends or relations, called in the peripatetic schoolmaster as his
amanuensis, but this had one draw-back,--secrets had to be poured into an
ear other than that for which they were intended, and often the
confidence was betrayed.

Now, that education is abroad in the land, there is seldom any occasion
for any person to call upon the service of another to compose and write a
personal letter. Very few now-a-days are so grossly illiterate as not to
be able to read and write. No matter how crude his effort may be it is
better for any one to write his own letters than trust to another. Even
if he should commence,--"deer fren, i lift up my pen to let ye no that i
hove been sik for the past 3 weeks, hopping this will findye the same,"
his spelling and construction can be excused in view of the fact that his
intention is good, and that he is doing his best to serve his own turn
without depending upon others.

The nature, substance and tone of any letter depend upon the occasion
that calls it forth, upon the person writing it and upon the person for
whom it is intended. Whether it should be easy or formal in style, plain
or ornate, light or serious, gay or grave, sentimental or matter-of-fact
depend upon these three circumstances.

In letter writing the first and most important requisites are to be
natural and simple; there should be no straining after effect, but simply
a spontaneous out-pouring of thoughts and ideas as they naturally occur
to the writer. We are repelled by a person who is stiff and labored in
his conversation and in the same way the stiff and labored letter bores
the reader. Whereas if it is light and in a conversational vein it
immediately engages his attention.

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