Books: How to Speak and Write Correctly

J >> Joseph Devlin >> How to Speak and Write Correctly

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11

(1) A collective noun is a number of individuals or things
regarded as a whole; as, _class regiment_. When the individuals
or things are prominently brought forward, use a plural verb;
as The class _were_ distinguished for ability. When the idea of
the whole as a unit is under consideration employ a singular
verb; as The regiment _was_ in camp. (2) It is sometimes hard
for the ordinary individual to distinguish the plural from the
singular in foreign nouns, therefore, he should be careful in
the selection of the verb. He should look up the word and be
guided accordingly. "He was an _alumnus_ of Harvard." "They
were _alumni_ of Harvard." (3) When a sentence with one verb
has two or more subjects denoting different things, connected
by _and_, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain _are_
disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing and are
connected by _or_ the verb should be singular; as, "The man or
the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more than
one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with the
most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, _is_ wrong."
"Whether he or I _am_ to be blamed."

(2) Never use the past participle for the past tense nor _vice versa_.
This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear "He done it" for
"He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of broken. "He would have went"
for "He would have gone," etc.

(3) The use of the verbs _shall_ and _will_ is a rock upon which even
the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged recklessly.
Their significance changes according as they are used with the first,
second or third person. With the first person _shall_ is used in direct
statement to express a simple future action; as, "I shall go to the
city to-morrow." With the second and third persons _shall_ is used to
express a determination; as, "You _shall_ go to the city to-morrow,"
"He _shall_ go to the city to-morrow."

With the first person _will_ is used in direct statement to express
determination, as, "I will go to the city to-morrow." With the second and
third persons _will_ is used to express simple future action; as, "You
_will_ go to the city to-morrow," "He _will_ go to the city to-morrow."

A very old rule regarding the uses of _shall_ and _will_ is thus
expressed in rhyme:

In the first person simply _shall_ foretells,
In _will_ a threat or else a promise dwells.
_Shall_ in the second and third does threat,
_Will_ simply then foretells the future feat.

(4) Take special care to distinguish between the nominative and objective
case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the ancient distinctive
case ending for the objective. Remember that the objective case follows
transitive verbs and prepositions. Don't say "The boy who I sent to see
you," but "The boy whom I sent to see you." _Whom_ is here the object of
the transitive verb sent. Don't say "She bowed to him and I" but "She
bowed to him and me" since me is the objective case following the
preposition _to_ understood. "Between you and I" is a very common
expression. It should be "Between you and me" since _between_ is a
preposition calling for the objective case.

(5) Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and
_that_. Who refers only to persons; which only to things; as, "The boy
who was drowned," "The umbrella which I lost." The relative _that_ may
refer to both persons and things; as, "The man _that_ I saw." "The hat
_that_ I bought."

(6) Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the comparative;
as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the richer of the two."
Other mistakes often made in this connection are (1) Using the double
comparative and superlative; as, "These apples are much _more_ preferable."
"The most universal motive to business is gain." (2) Comparing objects
which belong to dissimilar classes; as "There is no nicer _life_ than a
_teacher_." (3) Including objects in class to which they do not belong;
as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (4) Excluding an object from a
class to which it does belong; as, "Caesar was braver than any ancient
warrior."

(7) Don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an adjective.
Don't say, "He acted nice towards me" but "He acted nicely toward me,"
and instead of saying "She looked _beautifully_" say "She looked
_beautiful_."

(8) Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies. Instead
of saying, "He walked to the door quickly," say "He walked quickly to the
door."

(9) Not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and
objective cases of the pronouns, but try to avoid ambiguity in their use.

The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is well
illustrated by Burton in the following story of Billy Williams, a comic
actor who thus narrates his experience in riding a horse owned by
Hamblin, the manager:

"So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man to put
the saddle on him."

"On Tom Flynn?"

"No, on the horse. So after talking with Tom Flynn awhile I mounted
him."

"What! mounted Tom Flynn?"

"No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and rode off."

"Shook hands with the horse, Billy?"

"No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who should
I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to hold him by
the head."

"What! hold Hamblin by the head?"

"No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together."

"What! you and the horse?"

"No, _me_ and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him again and went out
of town."

"What! mounted Hamblin again?"

"No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should be there but Tom
Flynn,--he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me; so I told
the hostler to tie him up."

"Tie Tom Flynn up?"

"No, the horse; and we had a drink there."

"What! you and the horse?"

"No, me and Tom Flynn."

Finding his auditors by this time in a _horse_ laugh, Billy wound up
with: "Now, look here,--every time I say horse, you say Hamblin, and
every time I say Hamblin you say horse: I'll be hanged if I tell you
any more about it."

SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION

There are two great classes of sentences according to the general
principles upon which they are founded. These are termed the _loose_ and
the _periodic_.

In the _loose_ sentence the main idea is put first, and then follow
several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author particularly
noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a leading declaration
to which he adds several attendant connections. For instance in the
opening of the story of _Robinson Crusoe_ we read: "I was born in the
year 1632 in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that
country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at
Hull; he got a good estate by merchandise, and leaving off his trade
lived afterward at York, from whence he had married my mother, whose
relations were named Robinson, a very good family in the country and from
I was called Robinson Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in
England, we are now called, nay, we call ourselves, and write our name
Crusoe, and so my companions always called me."

In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is preceded by a
series of relative introductions. This kind of sentence is often
introduced by such words as _that_, _if_, _since_, _because_. The
following is an example:

"That through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should have
been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a beggar on
the streets, soliciting alms from those who had formerly been the
recipients of his bounty, was a sore humiliation."

On account of its name many are liable to think the _loose_ sentence an
undesirable form in good composition, but this should not be taken for
granted. In many cases it is preferable to the periodic form.

As a general rule in speaking, as opposed to writing, the _loose_ form is
to be preferred, inasmuch as when the periodic is employed in discourse
the listeners are apt to forget the introductory clauses before the final
issue is reached.

Both kinds are freely used in composition, but in speaking, the _loose_,
which makes the direct statement at the beginning, should predominate.

As to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the
composition.

However the general rule may be laid down that short sentences are
preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best writers of the present
day is towards short, snappy, pithy sentences which rivet the attention of
the reader. They adopt as their motto _multum in parvo_ (much in little)
and endeavor to pack a great deal in small space. Of course the extreme of
brevity is to be avoided. Sentences can be too short, too jerky, too
brittle to withstand the test of criticism. The long sentence has its place
and a very important one. It is indispensable in argument and often is very
necessary to description and also in introducing general principles which
require elaboration. In employing the long sentence the inexperienced
writer should not strain after the heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and
Carlyle used such a type, but remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the
sledge hammer of a giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual giants and
few can hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The tyro in
composition should never seek after the heavy style. The best of all
authors in the English language for style is Addison. Macaulay says: "If
you wish a style learned, but not pedantic, elegant but not ostentatious,
simple yet refined, you must give your days and nights to the volumes of
Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart from the beauty of Addison's
writings causes us to reiterate the literary command--"Never use a big word
when a little one will convey the same or a similar meaning."

Macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate. He is like a clear
brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which you can see
and count the beautiful white pebbles. Goldsmith is another writer whose
simplicity of style charms.

The beginner should study these writers, make their works his _vade mecum_,
they have stood the test of time and there has been no improvement upon
them yet, nor is there likely to be, for their writing is as perfect as
it is possible to be in the English language.

Apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed rules for
the formation of sentences. The best plan is to follow the best authors
and these masters of language will guide you safely along the way.

THE PARAGRAPH

The paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are closely
related in thought and which serve one common purpose. Not only do they
preserve the sequence of the different parts into which a composition is
divided, but they give a certain spice to the matter like raisins in a
plum pudding. A solid page of printed matter is distasteful to the reader;
it taxes the eye and tends towards the weariness of monotony, but when it
is broken up into sections it loses much of its heaviness and the
consequent lightness gives it charm, as it were, to capture the reader.

Paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow river, which
enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one to the other until
he gets across; but if the stones are placed too far apart in attempting
to span the distance one is liable to miss the mark and fall in the water
and flounder about until he is again able to get a foothold. 'Tis the
same with written language, the reader by means of paragraphs can easily
pass from one portion of connected thought to another and keep up his
interest in the subject until he gets to the end.

Throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard to the
matter under consideration,--a sentence dependency. For instance, in the
same paragraph we must not speak of a house on fire and a runaway horse
unless there is some connection between the two. We must not write
consecutively:

"The fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater part of the
large building in a short time." "The horse took fright and wildly dashed
down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions." These two
sentences have no connection and therefore should occupy separate and
distinct places. But when we say--"The fire raged with fierce intensity
consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time and the
horse taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street scattering
pedestrians in all directions,"--there is a natural sequence, viz., the
horse taking fright as a consequence of the flames and hence the two
expressions are combined in one paragraph.

As in the case of words in sentences, the most important places in a
paragraph are the beginning and the end. Accordingly the first sentence
and the last should by virtue of their structure and nervous force,
compel the reader's attention. It is usually advisable to make the first
sentence short; the last sentence may be long or short, but in either
case should be forcible. The object of the first sentence is to state a
point _clearly_; the last sentence should _enforce_ it.

It is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the paragraph a
restatement or counterpart or application of the opening.

In most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of the
principal sentence. The leading thought or idea can be taken as a nucleus
and around it constructed the different parts of the paragraph. Anyone
can make a context for every simple sentence by asking himself questions
in reference to the sentence. Thus--"The foreman gave the order"--
suggests at once several questions; "What was the order?" "to whom did he
give it?" "why did he give it?" "what was the result?" etc. These
questions when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an
elaboration of it into a complete paragraph.

If we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a number of
items, each of which helps to illustrate, confirm or enforce the general
thought or purpose of the paragraph. Also the transition from each item
to the next is easy, natural and obvious; the items seem to come of
themselves. If, on the other hand, we detect in a paragraph one or more
items which have no direct bearing, or if we are unable to proceed
readily from item to item, especially if we are obliged to rearrange the
items before we can perceive their full significance, then we are
justified in pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty.

No specific rules can be given as to the construction of paragraphs. The
best advice is,--Study closely the paragraph structure of the best
writers, for it is only through imitation, conscious or unconscious of
the best models, that one can master the art.

The best paragraphist in the English language for the essay is Macaulay,
the best model to follow for the oratorical style is Edmund Burke and for
description and narration probably the greatest master of paragraph is
the American Goldsmith, Washington Irving.

A paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the indentation of
the line, that is, by commencing it a space from the left margin.

CHAPTER IV

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Figures of Speech--Definitions and Examples--Use of Figures

In _Figurative Language_ we employ words in such a way that they differ
somewhat from their ordinary signification in commonplace speech and
convey our meaning in a more vivid and impressive manner than when we use
them in their every-day sense. Figures make speech more effective, they
beautify and emphasize it and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt
does to food; besides they add energy and force to expression so that it
irresistibly compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of
figures, viz.: (1) Figures of Orthography which change the spelling of a
word; (2) Figures of Etymology which change the form of words; (3) Figures
of Syntax which change the construction of sentences; (4) Figures of
Rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively which change the
mode of thought.

We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the most
important, really giving to language the construction and style which
make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of ideas.

Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, some authorities
extending the list to a useless length. The fact is that any form of
expression which conveys thought may be classified as a Figure.

The principal figures as well as the most important and those oftenest
used are, _Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synechdoche,
Metonymy, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision, Antithesis, Climax,
Epigram, Interrogation_ and _Irony_.

The first four are founded on _resemblance_, the second six on _contiguity_
and the third five, on _contrast_.

A _Simile_ (from the Latin _similis_, like), is the likening of one thing
to another, a statement of the resemblance of objects, acts, or relations;
as "In his awful anger he was _like_ the storm-driven waves dashing
against the rock." A simile makes the principal object plainer and
impresses it more forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax to
receive impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings out the
leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner. Contrast
it with the simple statement--"His memory is good." Sometimes _Simile_ is
prostituted to a low and degrading use; as "His face was like a danger
signal in a fog storm." "Her hair was like a furze-bush in bloom." "He
was to his lady love as a poodle to its mistress." Such burlesque is
never permissible. Mere _likeness_, it should be remembered, does not
constitute a simile. For instance there is no simile when one city is
compared to another. In order that there may be a rhetorical simile, the
objects compared must be of different classes. Avoid the old _trite_
similes such as comparing a hero to a lion. Such were played out long
ago. And don't hunt for farfetched similes. Don't say--"Her head was
glowing as the glorious god of day when he sets in a flambeau of splendor
behind the purple-tinted hills of the West." It is much better to do
without such a simile and simply say--"She had fiery red hair."

A _Metaphor_ (from the Greek _metapherein_, to carry over or transfer),
is a word used to _imply_ a resemblance but instead of likening one
object to another as in the _simile_ we directly substitute the action or
operation of one for another. If, of a religious man we say,--"He is as a
great pillar upholding the church," the expression is a _simile_, but if
we say--"He is a great pillar upholding the church" it is a metaphor. The
metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the simile. It is more
like a picture and hence, the graphic use of metaphor is called
"word-painting." It enables us to give to the most abstract ideas form,
color and life. Our language is full of metaphors, and we very often use
them quite unconsciously. For instance, when we speak of the _bed_ of a
river, the _shoulder_ of a hill, the _foot_ of a mountain, the _hands_ of
a clock, the _key_ of a situation, we are using metaphors.

Don't use mixed metaphors, that is, different metaphors in relation to the
same subject: "Since it was launched our project has met with much
opposition, but while its flight has not reached the heights ambitioned, we
are yet sanguine we shall drive it to success." Here our project begins as
a _ship_, then becomes a _bird_ and finally winds up as a _horse_.

_Personification_ (from the Latin _persona_, person, and _facere_, to make)
is the treating of an inanimate object as if it were animate and is
probably the most beautiful and effective of all the figures.

"The mountains _sing_ together, the hills _rejoice_ and _clap_ their
hands."

"Earth _felt_ the wound; and Nature from her seat,
_Sighing_, through all her works, gave signs of woe."

Personification depends much on a vivid imagination and is adapted
especially to poetical composition. It has two distinguishable forms:
(1) when personality is ascribed to the inanimate as in the foregoing
examples, and (2) when some quality of life is attributed to the
inanimate; as, a _raging_ storm; an _angry_ sea; a _whistling_ wind, etc.

An _Allegory_ (from the Greek _allos_, other, and _agoreuein_, to speak),
is a form of expression in which the words are symbolical of something.
It is very closely allied to the metaphor, in fact is a continued metaphor.

_Allegory_, _metaphor_ and _simile_ have three points in common,--they
are all founded on resemblance. "Ireland is like a thorn in the side of
England;" this is simile. "Ireland _is_ a thorn in the side of England;"
this is metaphor. "Once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived
on an island all by himself. On looking around he discovered a little
girl on another small island near by. He thought the little girl could be
useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her subservient to
his will. He commanded her, but she refused to obey, then he resorted to
very harsh measures with the little girl, but she still remained obstinate
and obdurate. He continued to oppress her until finally she rebelled and
became as a thorn in his side to prick him for his evil attitude towards
her;" this is an allegory in which the giant plainly represents England
and the little girl, Ireland; the implication is manifest though no
mention is made of either country. Strange to say the most perfect allegory
in the English language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant
man, and written too, in a dungeon cell. In the "Pilgrim's Progress,"
Bunyan, the itinerant tinker, has given us by far the best allegory ever
penned. Another good one is "The Faerie Queen" by Edmund Spenser.

_Synecdoche_ (from the Greek, _sun_ with, and _ekdexesthai_, to receive),
is a figure of speech which expresses either more or less than it literally
denotes. By it we give to an object a name which literally expresses
something more or something less than we intend. Thus: we speak of the
world when we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose
the world: as, "The world treated him badly." Here we use the whole for a
part. But the most common form of this figure is that in which a part is
used for the whole; as, "I have twenty head of cattle," "One of his _hands_
was assassinated," meaning one of his men. "Twenty _sail_ came into the
harbor," meaning twenty ships. "This is a fine marble," meaning a marble
statue.

_Metonymy_ (from the Greek _meta_, change, and _onyma_, a name) is the
designation of an object by one of its accompaniments, in other words, it
is a figure by which the name of one object is put for another when the
two are so related that the mention of one readily suggests the other.
Thus when we say of a drunkard--"He loves the bottle" we do not mean that
he loves the glass receptacle, but the liquor that it is supposed to
contain. Metonymy, generally speaking, has, three subdivisions: (1) when
an effect is put for cause or _vice versa_: as "_Gray hairs_ should be
respected," meaning old age. "He writes a fine hand," that is, handwriting.
(2) when the _sign_ is put for the _thing signified_; as, "The pen is
mightier than the sword," meaning literary power is superior to military
force. (3) When the _container_ is put for the thing contained; as "The
_House_ was called to order," meaning the members in the House.

_Exclamation_ (from the Latin _ex_, out, and _clamare_, to cry), is a
figure by which the speaker instead of stating a fact, simply utters an
expression of surprise or emotion. For instance when he hears some
harrowing tale of woe or misfortune instead of saying,--"It is a sad
story" he exclaims "What a sad story!"

Exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling, though it
is also applied to written forms which are intended to express emotion.
Thus in describing a towering mountain we can write "Heavens, what a
piece of Nature's handiwork! how majestic! how sublime! how awe-inspiring
in its colossal impressiveness!" This figure rather belongs to poetry and
animated oratory than to the cold prose of every-day conversation and
writing.

_Hyperbole_ (from the Greek _hyper_, beyond, and _ballein_, to throw), is
an exaggerated form of statement and simply consists in representing
things to be either greater or less, better or worse than they really
are. Its object is to make the thought more effective by overstating it.
Here are some examples:--"He was so tall his head touched the clouds."
"He was as thin as a poker." "He was so light that a breath might have
blown him away." Most people are liable to overwork this figure. We are
all more or less given to exaggeration and some of us do not stop there,
but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying. There should be a
limit to hyperbole, and in ordinary speech and writing it should be well
qualified and kept within reasonable bounds.

Pages:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11