Books: Himalayan Journals (Complete)

J >> J. D. Hooker >> Himalayan Journals (Complete)

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Water. Air.
Exit 2h. 30m. p.m. 62 degrees
3 62.2 degrees 74 degrees
3.30 63.2 degrees
4 64 degrees
4.30 65 degrees
5 65.4 degrees 72.5 degrees opposite Rummai
5.30 66 degrees
6 66 degrees 71.7 degrees opposite Baikant]

The absence of large stones or boulders of rock in the bed of the
Teesta is very remarkable, considering the great volume and rapidity
of the current, and that it shoots directly from the rocky hills to
the gravelly plains. At the _embouchure_ there are boulders as big
as the head, and in the stream, four miles below the exit, the
boatmen pointed out a stone as large as the body as quite a marvel.

They assured us that the average rise at the mouth of the river, in
the rains, was not more than five feet: the mean breadth of the
stream is from seventy to ninety yards. From the point where it
leaves the mountains, to its junction with the Megna, is at this
season thirteen days' voyage, the return occupying from twenty to
twenty-five days, with the boats unladen. The name "Teesta" signifies
"quiet," this river being so in comparison with other Himalayan
torrents further west, the Cosi, Konki, etc., which are devastators
of all that bounds their course.

We passed but two crossing-places: at one the river is divided by an
island, covered with the rude chaits and flags of the Boodhists.
We also saw some Cooch fishermen, who throw the net much as we do:
a fine "Mahaser" (a very large carp) was the best fish they had.
Of cultivation there was very little, and the only habitations were a
few grass-huts of the boatmen or buffalo herdsmen, a rare Cooch
village of Catechu and Sal cutters, or the shelter of
timber-floaters, who seem to pass the night in nests of long
dry grass.

Our servants not having returned with the elephants from Rummai, we
spent the following day at Rangamally shooting and botanizing.
I collected about 100 species in a couple of hours, and observed
perhaps twice that number: the more common I have repeatedly alluded
to, and excepting some small terrestrial _Orchids,_ I added nothing
of particular interest to my collection.* [The following is a list of
the principal genera, most of which are English:--_Polygonum,
Quercus, Sonchus, Gnaphalium, Cratagus, Lobelia, Lactuca,
Hydrocotyle, Saponaria, Campanula, Bidens, Rubus, Oxalis, Artemisia,
Fragaria, Clematis, Dioscorea, Potamogeton, Chara, Veronica,
Viola, Smilax._]

On the 14th of March we proceeded west to Siligoree, along the skirts
of the ragged Sal forest. Birds are certainly the most conspicuous
branch of the natural history of this country, and we saw many
species, interesting either from their habits, beauty, or extensive
distribution. We noticed no less than sixteen kinds of swimming
birds, several of which are migratory and English. The Shoveller,
white-eyed and common wild ducks; Merganser, Brahminee, and Indian
goose (_Anser Indica_); common and Gargany teal; two kinds of gull;
one of Shearwater (_Rhynchops ablacus_); three of tern, and one of
cormorant. Besides these there were three egrets, the large crane,
stork, green heron, and the demoiselle; the English sand-martin,
kingfisher, peregrine-falcon, sparrow-hawk, kestrel, and the European
vulture: the wild peacock, and jungle-fowl. There were at least 100
peculiarly Indian birds in addition, of which the more remarkable
were several kinds of mina, of starling, vulture, kingfisher, magpie,
quail, and lapwing.

The country gradually became quite beautiful, much undulated and
diversified by bright green meadows, sloping lawns, and deeply wooded
nullahs, which lead from the Sal forest and meander through this
varied landscape. More beautiful sites for fine mansions could not
well be, and it is difficult to suppose so lovely a country should be
so malarious as it is before and after the rains, excessive heat
probably diffusing widely the miasma from small stagnant surfaces.
We noticed a wild hog, absolutely the first wild beast of any size I
sawon the plains, except the hispid hare (_Lepus hispidus_) and the
barking deer (_Stylocerus ratna_). The hare we found to be the best
game of this part of India, except the teal. The pheasants of
Dorjiling are poor, the deer all but uneatable, and the florican,
however dressed, I considered a far from excellent bird.

A good many plants grow along the streams, the sandy beds of which
are everywhere covered with the marks of tigers' feet. The only safe
way of botanizing is by pushing through the jungle on elephants; an
uncomfortable method, from the quantity of ants and insects which
drop from the foliage above, and from the risk of disturbing
pendulous bees' and ants' nests.

A peculiar species of willow (_Salix tetrasperma_) is common here;
which is a singular fact, as the genus is characteristic of cold and
arctic latitudes; and no species is found below 5000 feet elevation
on the Sikkim mountain, where it grows on the inner Himalaya only,
some kinds ascending to 16,000 feet.

East of Siligoree the plains are unvaried by tree or shrub, and are
barren wastes of short turf or sterile sand, with the dwarf-palm
(_Phoenix acaulis_), a sure sign of a most hungry soil.

The latter part of the journey I performed on elephants during the
heat of the day, and a more uncomfortable mode of conveyance surely
never was adopted; the camel's pace is more fatiguing, but that of
the elephant is extremely trying after a few miles, and is so
injurious to the human frame that the Mahouts (drivers) never reach
an advanced age, and often succumb young to spine-diseases, brought
on by the incessant motion of the vertebral column. The broiling heat
of the elephant's black back, and the odour of its oily driver, are
disagreeable accompaniments, as are its habits of snorting water from
its trunk over its parched skin, and the consequences of the great
bulk of green food which it consumes.

From Siligoree I made a careful examination of the gravel beds that
occur on the road north to the foot of the hills, and thence over the
tertiary sandstone to Punkabaree. At the Rukti river, which flows
south-west, the road suddenly rises, and crosses the first
considerable hill, about two miles south of any rock _in situ._
This river cuts a cliff from 60 to 100 feet high, composed of
stratified sand and water-worn gravel: further south, the spur
declines into the plains, its course marked by the Sal that thrives
on its gravelly soil. The road then runs north-west over a plain to
an isolated hill about 200 feet high, also formed of sand and gravel.
We ascended to the top of this, and found it covered with blocks of
gneiss, and much angular detritus. Hence the road gradually ascends,
and becomes clayey. Argillaceous rocks, and a little ochreous
sandstone appeared in highly-inclined strata, dipping north, and
covered with great water-worn blocks of gneiss. Above, a flat
terrace, flanked to the eastward by a low wooded hill, and another
rise of sandstone, lead on to the great Baisarbatti terrace.

_Bombax, Erythrina,_ and _Duabanga_ (_Lagaerstraemia grandiflora_),
were in full flower, and with the profusion of _Bauhinia,_ rendered
the tree-jungle gay: the two former are leafless when flowering.
The Duabanga is the pride of these forests. Its trunk, from eight to
fifteen feet in girth, is generally forked from the base, and the
long pendulous branches which clothe the trunk for 100 feet, are
thickly leafy, and terminated by racemes of immense white flowers,
which, especially when in bud, smell most disagreeably of
assafoetida. The magnificent Apocyneous climber, _Beaumontia,_ was in
full bloom, ascending the loftiest trees, and clothing their trunks
with its splendid foliage and festoons of enormous funnel-shaped
white flowers.

The report of a bed of iron-stone eight or ten miles west of
Punkabaree determined our visiting the spot; and the locality being
in a dense jungle, the elephants were sent on ahead.

We descended to the terraces flanking the Balasun river, and struck
west along jungle-paths to a loosely-timbered flat. A sudden descent
of 150 feet landed us on a second terrace. Further on, a third dip of
about twenty feet (in some places obliterated) flanks the bed of the
Balasun; the river itself being split into many channels at this
season. The west bank, which is forty feet high, is of stratified
sand and gravel, with vast slightly-worn blocks of gneiss: from the
top of this we proceeded south-west for three miles to some Mechi
villages, the inhabitants of which flocked to meet us, bringing milk
and refreshments.

The Lohar-ghur, or "iron hill," lies in a dense dry forest.
Its plain-ward flanks are very steep, and covered with scattered
weather-worn masses of ochreous and black iron-stone, many of which
are several yards long: it fractures with faint metallic lustre, and
is very earthy in parts: it does not affect the compass. There are no
pebbles of iron-stone, nor water-worn rocks of any kind found
with it.

The sandstones, close by, cropped out in thick beds (dip north 70
degrees): they are very soft, and beds of laminated clay, and of a
slaty rock, are intercalated with them; also an excessively tough
conglomerate, formed of an indurated blue or grey paste, with nodules
of harder clay. There are no traces of metal in the rock, and the
lumps of ore are wholly superficial.

Below Punkabaree the Baisarbatti stream cuts through banks of gravel
overlying the sandstone (dip north 65 degrees). The sandstone is
gritty and micaceous, intercalated with beds of indurated shale and
clay; in which I found the shaft (apparently) of a bone; there were
also beds of the same clay conglomerate which I had seen at
Lohar-ghur, and thin seams of brown lignite; with a rhomboidal
cleavage. In the bed of the stream were carbonaceous shales, with
obscure impressions of fern leaves, of _Trizygia,_ and _Vertebraria_:
both fossils characteristic of the Burdwan coal-fields (see Chapter
I), but too imperfect to justify any conclusion as to the relation
between these formations.* [These traces of fossils are not
sufficient to identify the formation with that of the sewalik hills
of North-west India; but its contents, together with its strike, dip,
and position relatively to the mountains, and its mineralogical
character, incline me to suppose it may be similar. Its appearance in
such small quantities in Sikkim (where it rises but a few hundred
feet above the level of the sea, whereas in Kumaon it reaches 4000
feet), may be attributed to the greater amount of wearing which it
must have undergone; the plains from which it rises being 1000 feet
lower than those of Kumaon, and the sea having consequently retired
later, exposing the Sikkim sandstone to the effects of denudation for
a much longer period. Hitherto no traces of this rock, or of any
belonging to a similar geological epoch, have been found in the
valleys of Sikkim; but when the narrowness of these is considered, it
will not appear strange that such may have been removed from their
surfaces: first, by the action of a tidal ocean; and afterwards, by
that of tropical rains.]

Ascending the stream, these shales are seen _in situ,_ overlain by
the metamorphic clay-slate of the mountains, and dipping inwards
(northwards) like them. This is at the foot of the Punkabaree spur,
and close to the bungalow, where a stream and land-slip expose good
sections. The carbonaceous beds dip north 60 degrees and 70 degrees,
and run east and west; much quartz rock is intercalated with them,
and soft white and pink micaceous sandstones. The coal-seams are few
in number, six to twelve inches thick, very confused and distorted,
and full of elliptic nodules, or spheroids of quartzy slate, covered
with concentric scaly layers of coal: they overlie the sandstones
mentioned above. These scanty notices of superposition being
collected in a country clothed with the densest tropical forest,
where a geologist pursues his fatiguing investigations under
disadvantages that can hardly be realized in England, will I fear
long remain unconfirmed. I may mention, however, that the appearance
of inversion of the strata at the foot of great mountain-masses has
been observed in the Alleghany chain, and I believe in the Alps.*
[Dr. M'Lelland informs me that in the Curruckpore hills, south of the
Ganges, the clay-slates are overlain by beds of mica-slate, gneiss,
and granite, which pass into one another.]

Illustration--A MECH, NATIVE OF THE SIKKIM TERAI.

A poor Mech was fishing in the stream, with a basket curiously formed
of a cylinder of bamboo, cleft all round in innumerable strips, held
together by the joints above and below; these strips being stretched
out as a balloon in the middle, and kept apart by a hoop: a small
hole is cut in the cage, and a mouse-trap entrance formed: the cage
is placed in the current with the open end upwards, where the fish
get in, and though little bigger than minnows, cannot find their
way out.

On the 20th we had a change in the weather: a violent storm from the
south-west occurred at noon, with hail of a strange form, the stones
being sections of hollow spheres, half an inch across and upwards,
formed of cones with truncated apices and convex bases; these cones
were aggregated together with their bases outwards. The large masses
were followed by a shower of the separate conical pieces, and that by
heavy rain. On the mountains this storm was most severe: the stones
lay at Dorjiling for seven days, congealed into masses of ice several
feet long and a foot thick in sheltered places: at Purneah, fifty
miles south, stones one and two inches across fell, probably as
whole spheres.

Ascending to Khersiong, I found the vegetation very backward by the
road-sides. The rain had cleared the atmosphere, and the view over
the plains was brilliant. On the top of the Khersiong spur a
tremendous gale set in with a cold west wind: the storm cleared off
at night, which at 10 p.m. was beautiful, with forked and sheet
lightning over the plains far below us. The equinoctial gales had now
fairly set in, with violent south-east gales, heavy thunder,
lightning, and rain.

Whilst at Khersiong I took advantage of the very fair section
afforded by the road from Punkabaree, to examine the structure of the
spur, which seems to be composed of very highly inclined contorted
beds (dip north) of metamorphic rocks, gneiss, mica-slate,
clay-slate, and quartz; the foliation of which beds is parallel to
the dip of the strata. Over all reposes a bed of clay, capped with a
layer of vegetable mould, nowhere so thick and rich as in the more
humid regions of 7000 feet elevation. The rocks appeared in the
following succession in descending. Along the top are found great
blocks of very compact gneiss buried in clay. Half a mile lower the
same rock appears, dipping north-north-east 50 degrees. Below this,
beds of saccharine quartz, with seams of mica, dip north-north-west
20 degrees. Some of these quartz beds are folded on themselves, and
look like flattened trunks of trees, being composed of concentric
layers, each from two to four inches thick: we exposed twenty-seven
feet of one fold running along the side of the road, which was cut
parallel to the strike. Each layer of quartz was separated from its
fellows, by one of mica scales; and was broken up into cubical
fragments, whose surfaces are no doubt cleavage and jointing places.
I had previously seen, but not understood, such flexures produced by
metamorphic action on masses of quartz when in a pasty state, in the
Falkland Islands, where they have been perfectly well described by
Mr. Darwin;* [Journal of Geological Society for 1846, p. 267, and
"Voyage of the Beagle".] in whose views of the formation of these
rocks I entirely concur.

The flexures of the gneiss are incomparably more irregular and
confused than those of the quartz, and often contain flattened
spheres of highly crystalline felspar, that cleave perpendicularly to
the shorter axis. These spheres are disposed in layers parallel to
the foliation of the gneiss: and are the result of a metamorphic
action of great intensity, effecting a complete rearrangement and
crystallization of the quartz and mica in parallel planes, whilst the
felspar is aggregated in spheres; just as in the rearrangement of the
mineral constituents of mica-schists, the alumina is crystallized in
the garnets, and in the clay-slates the iron into pyrites.

The quartz below this dips north-north-west 45 degrees to 50 degrees,
and alternates with a very hard slaty schist, dipping north-west 45
degrees, and still lower is a blue-grey clay-slate, dipping
north-north-west 30 degrees. These rest on beds of slate, folded like
the quartz mentioned above, but with cleavage-planes, forming lines
radiating from the axis of each flexure, and running through all the
concentric folds. Below this are the plumbago and clay slates of
Punkabaree, which alternate with beds of mica-schist with garnets,
and appear to repose immediately upon the carboniferous strata and
sandstone; but there is much disturbance at the junction.

On re-ascending from Punkabaree, the rocks gradually appear more and
more dislocated, the clay-slate less so than the quartz and
mica-schist, and that again far less than the gneiss, which is so
shattered and bent, that it is impossible to say what is _in situ,_
and what not. Vast blocks lie superficially on the ridges; and the
tops of all the outer mountains, as of Khersiong spur, of Tonglo,
Sinchul, and Dorjiling, appear a pile of such masses. Injected veins
of quartz are rare in the lower beds of schist and clay-slate, whilst
the gneiss is often full of them; and on the inner and loftier
ranges, these quartz veins are replaced by granite with tourmaline.

Lime is only known as a stalactitic deposit from various streams, at
elevations from 1000 to 7000 feet; one such stream occurs above
Punkabaree, which I have not seen; another within the Sinchul range,
on the great Rungeet river, above the exit of the Rummai; a third
wholly in the great central Himalayan range, flowing into the Lachen
river. The total absence of any calcareous rock in Sikkim, and the
appearance of the deposit in isolated streams at such distant
localities, probably indicates a very remote origin of the
lime-charged waters.

From Khersiong to Dorjiling, gneiss is the only rock, and is often
decomposed into clay-beds, 20 feet deep, in which the narrow, often
zigzag folia of quartz remain quite entire and undisturbed, whilst
every trace of the foliation of the softer mineral is lost.

At Pacheem, Dorjiling weather, with fog and drizzle, commenced, and
continued for two days: we, reached Dorjiling on the 24th of March,
and found that the hail which had fallen on the 20th was still lying
in great masses of crumbling ice in sheltered spots. The fall had
done great damage to the gardens, and Dr. Campbell's tea-plants were
cut to pieces.

Illustration--POCKET-COMB USED BY THE MECH TRIBES.

END OF VOLUME I OF HIMALAYAN JOURNALS.

HIMALAYAN JOURNALS
or
NOTES OF A NATURALIST

IN BENGAL, THE SIKKIM AND NEPAL HIMALAYAS,
THE KHASIA MOUNTAINS, etc.

JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, M.D., R.N., F.R.S.

Volume II

First published 1854

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Arrangements for second journey into Sikkim -- Opposition of Dewan --
Lassoo Kajee -- Tendong -- Legend of flood -- Lama of Silok-foke --
Namtchi -- Tchebu Lama -- Top of Tendong -- Gigantic oak -- Plants --
Teesta valley -- Commencement of rains -- Bhomsong -- Ascent to
Lathiang -- View -- Bad road -- Orchids -- Gorh -- Opposition of Lama
-- Arrival of Meepo -- Cross Teesta -- Difficulties of travelling --
Lepchas swimming -- Moxa for sprains -- Singtam -- Grandeur of view
of Kinchinjunga -- Wild men -- Singtam Soubah -- Landslips -- Bees'
nests and honey-seekers -- Leeches, etc. -- Chakoong -- Vegetation --
Gravel terraces -- Unpleasant effects of wormwood -- Choongtam,
scenery and vegetation of -- Inhabitants -- Tibetan salute -- Lamas
-- Difficulty of procuring food -- Contrast of vegetation of inner
and outer Himalaya -- Rhododendrons -- Yew -- _Abies Brunoniana_ --
Venomous snakes -- Hornets and other insects -- Choongtam temple --
Pictures of Lhassa -- Minerals -- Scenery.

CHAPTER XIX.

Routes from Choongtam to Tibet frontier -- Choice of that by the
Lachen river -- Arrival of supplies -- Departure -- Features of the
valley -- Eatable _Polygonum_ -- Tumlong -- Cross Taktoong river --
Pines, larches, and other trees -- Chateng pool -- Water-plants and
insects -- Tukcham mountain -- Lamteng village -- Inhabitants --
Alpine monkey -- Botany of temperate Himalaya -- European and
American fauna -- Japanese and Malayan genera -- Superstitious
objections to shooting -- Customs of people -- Rain -- Run short of
provisions -- Altered position of Tibet frontier -- Zemu Samdong --
Imposition -- Vegetation -- Uses of pines -- Ascent to Thlonok river
-- Balanophora wood for making cups -- Snow-beds -- Eatable mushrooms
and _Smilacina_ -- Asarabacca -- View of Kinchinjunga -- Arum-roots,
preparation of for food -- Liklo mountain -- Behaviour of my party --
Bridge constructed over Zemu -- Cross river -- Alarm of my party --
Camp on Zemu river.

CHAPTER XX.

Camp on Zemu river -- Scenery -- Falling rocks -- Tukcham mountain --
Height of glaciers -- Botany -- Gigantic rhubarb -- Insects -- Storm
-- Temperature of rivers -- Behaviour of Lachen Phipun -- Hostile
conduct of Bhoteeas -- View from mountains above camp -- Descend to
Zemu Samdong -- Vegetation -- Letters from Dorjiling -- Arrival of
Singtam Soubah -- Presents from Rajah -- Parties collecting
arum-roots -- Insects -- Ascend Lachen river -- Thakya-zong -- Tallum
Samdong village -- Cottages -- Mountains -- Plants -- Entomology --
Weather -- Halo -- Diseases -- Conduct of Singtam Soubah -- His
character and illness -- Agrees to take me to Kongra Lama -- Tungu --
Appearance of country -- Houses -- Poisoning by aram-roots -- Yaks
and calves -- Tibet ponies -- Journey to Kongra Lama -- Tibetan tents
-- Butter, curds, and churns -- Hospitality -- Kinchinjhow and
Chomiomo -- Magnificent scenery -- Reach Kongra Lama pass.

CHAPTER XXI.

Top of Kongra Lama -- Tibet frontier -- Elevation -- View --
Vegetation -- Descent to Tungu -- Tungu-choo -- Ponies -- Kinchinjhow
and Chango-khang mountains -- Palung plains -- Tibetans -- Dogs --
Dingcham province of Tibet -- Inhabitants -- Dresses -- Women's
ornaments -- Blackening faces -- Coral -- Tents -- Elevation of
Palung -- Lama -- Shawl-wool goats -- Shearing -- Siberian plants --
Height of glaciers, and perpetual snow -- Geology -- Plants, and wild
animals -- Marmots -- Insects -- Birds -- Choongtam Lama -- Religious
exercises -- Tibetan hospitality -- _Delphinium_ -- Perpetual snow --
Temperature at Tungu -- Return to Tallum Samdong -- To Lamteng --
Houses -- Fall of barometer -- Cicadas -- Lime deposits -- Landslips
-- Arrival at Choongtam -- Cobra -- Rageu -- Heat of climate --
Velocity and volume of rivers measured -- Leave for Lachoong valley
-- Keadom -- General features of valley -- Lachoong village -- Tunkra
mountain -- Moraines -- Cultivation -- Lachoong Phipun -- Lama
ceremonies beside a sick-bed.

CHAPTER XXII.

Leave Lachoong for Tunkra pass -- Moraines and their vegetation --
Pines of great dimensions -- Wild currants -- Glaciers -- Summit of
pass -- Elevation -- Views -- Plants -- Winds -- Choombi district --
Lacheepia rock -- Extreme cold -- Kinchinjunga -- Himalayan grouse --
Meteorological observations -- Return to Lachoong -- Oaks -- Ascend
to Yeumtong -- Flats and debacles -- Buried pine-trunks -- Perpetual
snow -- Hot springs -- Behaviour of Singtam Soubah -- Leave for Momay
Samdong -- Upper limit of trees -- Distribution of plants -- Glacial
terraces, etc. -- Forked Donkia -- Moutonneed rocks -- Ascent to
Donkia pass -- Vegetation -- Scenery -- Lakes -- Tibet -- Bhomtso --
Arun river -- Kiang-lah mountains -- Yaru-Tsampu river -- Appearance
of Tibet -- Kambajong -- Jigatzi -- Kinchinjhow, and Kinchinjunga --
Chola range -- Deceptive appearance of distant landscape -- Perpetual
snow -- Granite -- Temperatures -- Pulses -- Plants -- Tripe de roche
-- Return to Momay -- Dogs and yaks -- Birds -- Insects -- Quadrupeds
-- Hot springs -- Marmots -- Kinchinjhow glacier.

CHAPTER XXIII.

Donkia glaciers -- Moraines -- Dome of ice -- Honey-combed surface --
Rocks of Donkia -- Metamorphic action of granite veins -- Accident to
instruments -- Sebolah pass -- Bees and May-flies -- View --
Temperature -- Pulses of party -- Lamas and travellers at Momay --
Weather and climate -- Dr. Campbell leaves Dorjiling for Sikkim --
Leave Momay -- Yeumtong -- Lachoong -- Retardation of vegetation at
low elevations -- Choongtam -- Landslips and debacle -- Meet Dr.
Campbell -- Motives for his journey -- Second visit to Lachen valley
-- Autumnal tints -- Red currants -- Lachen Phipun -- Tungu --
Scenery -- Animals -- Poisonous rhododendrons -- Fire-wood -- Palung
-- Elevations -- Sitong -- Kongra Lama -- Tibetans -- Enter Tibet --
Desolate scenery -- Plants -- Animals -- Geology -- Cholamoo lakes --
Antelopes -- Return to Yeumtso -- Dr. Campbell lost -- Extreme cold
-- Headaches -- Tibetan Dingpun and guard -- Arms and accoutrements
-- Temperature of Yeumtso -- Migratory birds -- Visit of Dingpun --
Yeumtso lakes.