Books: Ragnarok: The Age of Fire and Gravel

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VI. The Drift is found in the equatorial regions of the world. If it
was produced by an ice-sheet in those regions, all pre-glacial forms
of life must have perished; but they did not perish; therefore the
ice-sheet could not

[1. "Popular Science Monthly," April, 1874, p. 646.]

{p. 42}

have covered these regions, and could not have produced the
drift-deposits there found.

In brief, the Drift is _not_ found where ice must have been, and _is_
found where ice could not have been; the conclusion, therefore, is
irresistible that the Drift is not due to ice.

{p. 43}

CHAPTER VII.

THE DRIFT A GIGANTIC CATASTROPHE.

IN the first place, the Drift fell upon a fair and lovely world, a
world far better adapted to give happiness to its inhabitants than
this storm-tossed planet on which we now live, with its endless
battle between heat and cold, between sun and ice.

The pre-glacial world was a garden, a paradise; not excessively warm
at the equator, and yet with so mild and equable a climate that the
plants we now call tropical flourished within the present Arctic
Circle. If some future daring navigator reaches the north pole and
finds solid land there, he will probably discover in the rocks at his
feet the fossil remains of the oranges and bananas of the pre-glacial
age.

That the reader may not think this an extravagant statement, let me
cite a few authorities.

A recent writer says:

"This was, indeed, for America, _the golden age_ of animals and
plants, and in all respects but one--the absence of man--the country
was more interesting and picturesque than now. We must imagine,
therefore, that the hills and valleys about the present site of New
York were covered with noble trees, and a dense undergrowth of
species, for the most part different from those now living there; and
that these were the homes and feeding-grounds of many kinds of
quadrupeds and birds, which have long since become extinct. The broad
plain which sloped gently seaward from the highlands must have been

{p. 44}

covered with a sub-tropical forest of-giant trees and tangled vines
teeming with animal life. This state of things doubtless continued
through many thousands of years, but ultimately a change came over
the fair face of Nature more complete and terrible than we have
language to describe."[1]

Another says:

"At the close of the Tertiary age, which ends the long series of
geological epochs previous to the Quaternary, the landscape of Europe
had, in the main, assumed its modern appearance. The middle era of
this age--the Miocene--was characterized by tropical plants, a varied
and imposing fauna, and a genial climate, so extended as to nourish
forests of beeches, maples, _walnuts_, poplars, and _magnolias in
Greenland and Spitzbergen_, while an exotic vegetation hid the
exuberant valleys of England."[2]

Dr. Dawson says:

"This delightful climate was not confined to the present temperate or
tropical regions. It extended to the very shores of the Arctic Sea.
In _North_ Greenland, at Atane-Kerdluk, in latitude 70° north, at an
elevation of more than a thousand feet above the sea, were found the
remains of beeches, oaks, pines, poplars, maples, _walnuts,
magnolias, limes_, and _vines_. The remains of similar plants were
found in Spitzbergen, in latitude 78° 56'."[3]

Dr. Dawson continues:

"Was the Miocene period on the whole a better age of the world than
that in which we live? In some respects it was. Obviously, there was
in the northern hemisphere a vast surface of land under a mild and
equable climate, and clothed with a rich and varied vegetation. Had
we lived in the Miocene we might have sat under our own vine and
fig-tree equally in Greenland and Spitzbergen and in those more
southern climes to which this

[1. "Popular Science Monthly," October, 1878, p. 648.

2. L. P. Gratacap, in "American Antiquarian," July, 1881, p. 280.

3. Dawson, "Earth and Man," p. 261.]

{p. 45}

privilege is now restricted. . . . Some reasons have been adduced for
the belief that in the Miocene and Eocene there were intervals of
cold climate; but the evidence of this may be merely local and
exceptional, and does not interfere with the broad characteristics of
the age."[1]

Sir Edward Belcher brought away from the dreary shores of Wellington
Channel (latitude 75° 32' north) portions of a tree which there can
be no doubt whatever had actually grown where be found it. The roots
were in place, in a frozen mass of earth, the stump standing upright
where it was probably overtaken by the great winter.[2] Trees have
been found, _in situ_, on Prince Patrick's Island, in latitude 76°
12' north, _four feet in circumference_. They were so old that the
wood had lost its combustible quality, and refused to burn. Mr.
Geikie thinks that it is possible these trees were pre-glacial, and
belonged to the Miocene age. They may have been the remnants of the
great forests which clothed that far northern region when the
so-called glacial age came on and brought the Drift.

We shall see hereafter that man, possibly civilized man, dwelt in
this fair and glorious world--this world that knew no frost, no cold,
no ice, no snow; that he had dwelt in it for thousands of years; that
he witnessed the appalling and sudden calamity which fell upon it;
and that he has preserved the memory of this catastrophe to the
present day, in a multitude of myths and legends scattered all over
the face of the habitable earth.

But was it sudden? Was it a catastrophe?

Again I call the witnesses to the stand, for I ask you, good reader,
to accept nothing that is not _proved_.

In the first place, was it sudden?

[1. "Earth and Man," p. 264.

2. "The Last of the Arctic Voyages," vol. i, p. 380.]

{p. 46}

One writer says:

"The glacial action, in the opinion of the land-glacialists, was
limited to a _definite period_, and operated _simultaneously_ over a
vast area."[1]

And again:

"The drift was accumulated where it is by some violent action."[2]

Louis Figuier says:

"The two cataclysms of which we have spoken surprised Europe at the
moment of the development of an important creation. The whole scope
of animated nature, the evolution of animals, was _suddenly arrested_
in that part of our hemisphere over which these gigantic convulsions
spread, followed by the brief but sudden submersion of entire
continents. Organic life had scarcely recovered from the violent
shock, when a second, and perhaps severer blow assailed it. The
northern and central parts of Europe, the vast countries which extend
from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean and the Danube, were visited by
a period of sudden and severe cold; the temperature of the polar
regions seized them. The plains of Europe, but now ornamented by the
luxurious vegetation developed by the heat of a burning climate, the
boundless pastures on which herds of great elephants, the active
horse, the robust hippopotamus, and great carnivorous animals grazed
and roamed, became covered with a mantle of ice and snow."[3]

M. Ch. Martins says:

"The most violent convulsions of the solid and liquid elements appear
to have been themselves only the effects due to a cause much more
powerful than the mere expansion of the pyrosphere; and it is
necessary to recur, in order to explain them, to some new and bolder
hypothesis than has Yet been hazarded. Some philosophers have belief

[1. American Cyclopædia," vol. vi, p. 114.

2. Ibid., vol. vi, p. 111.

3. "The World before the Deluge," p. 435.]

{p. 47}

in an astronomical revolution which may have overtaken our globe in
the first age of its formation, and have modified its position in
relation to the sun. They admit _that the poles have not always been
as they are now_, and that _some terrible shock displaced them_,
changing at the same time the inclination of the axis of the rotation
of the earth."[1]

Louis Figuier says:

"We can not doubt, after such testimony, of the existence, in the
frozen north, of the almost entire remains of the mammoth. The
animals seem to have _perished suddenly; enveloped in ice at the
moment of their death_, their bodies have been preserved from
decomposition by the continual action of the cold."[2]

Cuvier says, speaking of the bodies of the quadrupeds which the ice
had seized, and which have been preserved, with their hair, flesh,
and skin, down to our own times:

"If they had not been frozen as soon as killed, putrefaction would
have decomposed them; and, on the other hand, this eternal frost
could not have previously prevailed in the place where they died, for
they could not have lived in such a temperature. It was, therefore,
_at the same instant when these animals perished that the country
they inhabited was rendered glacial_. These events must have been
_sudden, instantaneous, and without any gradation_."[3]

There is abundant evidence that the Drift fell upon a land covered
with forests, and that the trunks of the trees were swept into the
mass of clay and gravel, where they are preserved to this day.

Mr. Whittlesey gives an account of a log found _forty feet below the
surface_, in a bed of blue clay, resting

[1. "The World before the Deluge," p. 463.

2. Ibid., p. 396.

3. "Ossements fossiles, Discours sur les Révolutions du Globe."]

{p. 48}

upon the "hard-pan" or "till," in a well dug at Columbia, Ohio.[1]

At Bloomington, Illinois, pieces of wood were found _one hundred and
twenty-three feet below the surface_, in sinking a shaft.[2]

And it is a very remarkable fact that none of these Illinois clays
_contain any fossils_.[3]

The inference, therefore, is irresistible that the clay, thus
unfossiliferous, fell upon and inclosed the trees while they were yet
growing.

These facts alone would dispose of the theory that the Drift was
deposited upon lands already covered with water. It is evident, on
the contrary, that it was dry land, inhabited land, land embowered in
forests.

On top of the Norwich crag, in England, are found the remains of an
ancient forest, "showing stumps of trees standing erect with their
roots penetrating an ancient soil."[4] In this soil occur the remains
of many extinct species of animals, together with those of others
still living; among these may be mentioned the hippopotamus, three
species of elephant, the mammoths, rhinoceros, bear, horse, Irish
elk, etc.

In Ireland remains of trees have been found in sand-beds below the
till.[5]

Dr. Dawson found a hardened peaty bed under the bowlder-clay, in
Canada, which "contained many small roots and branches, apparently of
coniferous trees allied to the spruces."[6] Mr. C. Whittlesey refers
to decayed

[1. "Smithsonian Contributions," vol. xv.

2. "Geology of Illinois," vol. iv, p. 179.

3. "The Great Ice Age," p. 387.

4. Ibid., p. 340. "Dublin Quarterly Journal of Science," vol. vi, p.
249.

5. "Acadian Geology," p. 63.]

{p. 49}

leaves and remains of the elephant and mastodon found below and in
the drift in America.[1]

"The remains of the mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and elephant
are found in the pre-glacial beds of Italy."[2]

These animals were slaughtered outright, and so suddenly that few
escaped:

Admiral Wrangel tells us that the remains of elephants, rhinoceroses,
etc., are heaped up in such quantities in certain parts of Siberia
that "he and his men climbed over ridges and mounds composed entirely
of their bones."[3]

We have seen that the Drift itself has all the appearance of having
been the product of some sudden catastrophe:

"Stones and bowlders alike are scattered higgledy-piggledy,
pell-mell, through the clay, so as to give it a _highly confused and
tumultuous appearance_."

Another writer says:

"In the mass of the 'till' itself fossils sometimes, but very rarely,
occur. Tusks of the mammoth, reindeer-antlers, and _fragments of
wood_ have from time to time been discovered. They almost invariably
afford marks of having been subjected to the same action as the
stones and bowlders by which they are surrounded."[4]

Another says:

"Logs and fragments of wood are often got at great depths in the
buried gorges."[5]

[1. "Smithsonian Contributions," vol. xv.

2. "The Great Ice Age," p. 492.

3. Agassiz, "Geological Sketches," p. 209.

4. "The Great Ice Age," p. 150.

5. "Illustrations of Surface Geology," "Smithsonian Contributions."]

{p. 50}

Mr. Geikie says:

"Below a deposit of till, at Woodhill Quarry, near Kilmaurs, in
Ayrshire (Scotland), the remains of mammoths and reindeer and certain
marine shells have several times been detected during the quarrying
operations. . . . Two elephant-tasks were got at a depth of seventeen
and a half feet from the surface. . . . The mammalian remains,
obtained from this quarry, occurred in a peaty layer between two thin
beds of sand and gravel which lay beneath a mass of 'till,' and
_rested directly on the sandstone rock_."[1]

And again:

"Remains of the mammoth have been met with at Chapelhall, near
Airdrie, where they occurred in a bed of laminated sand, _underlying_
'till.' Reindeer-antlers have also been discovered in other
localities, as in the valley of the Endrick, about four miles from
Loch Lomond, where an antler was found associated with marine shells,
near the bottom of a bed of blue clay, and _close to the underlying
rock_--the blue clay being covered with twelve feet of tough, stony
clay."[2]

Professor Winchell says

"Buried tree-trunks are often exhumed from the glacial drift at a
depth of from twenty to _sixty feet from the surface_. Dr. Locke has
published an account of a mass of buried drift-wood at Salem, Ohio,
_forty-three feet below the surface_, imbedded in ancient mud. The
museum of the University of Michigan contains several fragments of
well-preserved tree-trunks exhumed from wells in the vicinity of Ann
Arbor. Such occurrences are by no means uncommon. The encroachments
of the waves upon the shores of the Great Lakes reveal whole forests
of the buried trunks of the white cedar."[3]

These citations place it beyond question that the Drift came suddenly
upon the world, slaughtering the animals,

[1. The Great Ice Age," p. 149.

2. Ibid., p. 150.

3. Winchell, "Sketches of Creation," p. 259.]

{p. 51}

breaking up the forests, and overwhelming the trunks and branches of
the trees in its masses of _débris_.

Let us turn to the next question: Was it an extraordinary event, a
world-shaking cataclysm?

The answer to this question is plain: The Drift marks probably the
most awful convulsion and catastrophe that has ever fallen upon the
globe. The deposit of these continental masses of clay, sand, and
gravel was but one of the features of the apalling event. In addition
to this the earth at the same time was cleft with great cracks or
fissures, which reached down through many miles of the planet's crust
to the central fires and released the boiling rocks imprisoned in its
bosom, and these poured to the surface, as igneous, intrusive, or
trap-rocks. Where the great breaks were not deep enough to reach the
central fires, they left mighty fissures in the surface, which, in
the Scandinavian regions, are known as _fiords_, and which constitute
a striking feature of the scenery of these northern lands; they are
great canals--hewn, as it were, in the rock--with high walls
penetrating from the sea far into the interior of the land. They are
found in Great Britain, Maine, Nova Scotia, Labrador, Greenland, and
on the Western coast of North America.

David Dale Owen tells us that the outburst of trap-rock at the Dalles
of the St. Croix came up _through open fissures_, breaking the
continuity of strata, without tilting them into inclined planes."[1]
It would appear as if the earth, in the first place, cracked into
deep clefts, and the igneous matter within took advantage of these
breaks to rise to the surface. It caught masses of the sandstone in
its midst and hardened around them.

These great clefts seem to be, as Owen says, "lines

[1. "Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota," p. 142.]

{p. 52}

radiating southwestwardly from Lake Superior, as if that was the seat
of the disturbance which caused them."[1]

Moreover, when we come to examine the face of the rocks on which the
Drift came, we do not find them merely smoothed and ground down, as
we might suppose a great, heavy mass of ice moving slowly over them
would leave them. There was something more than this. There was
something, (whatever it was,) that fell upon them with awful force
and literally _smashed_ them, pounding, beating, pulverizing them,
and turning one layer of mighty rock over upon another, and
scattering them in the wildest confusion. We can not conceive of
anything terrestrial that, let loose upon the bare rocks to-day,
would or could produce such results.

Geikie says:

"When the 'till' is removed from the underlying rocks, these almost
invariably show either a well-smoothed, polished, and striated
surface, or else a _highly confused, broken, and smashed_
appearance."[2]

Gratacap says:

"'_Crushed ledges_' designate those plicated, overthrown, or curved
exposures where parallel rocks, as talcose schist, usually vertical,
are bent and fractured, _as if by a maul like force, battering them
from above_. The strata are oftentimes tumbled over upon a cliff-side
like a row of books, and rest upon heaps of fragments broken away by
the strain upon the bottom layers, or _crushed_ off from their
exposed layers."[3]

The Rev. O. Fisher, F. G. S., says he

"Finds the covering beds to consist of two members--a lower one,
entirely destitute of organic remains, and

[1. "Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota," p. 147.

2. "The Great Ice Age," p. 73.

3. "Popular Science Monthly," January, 1878, p. 326.]

{p. 53}

generally unstratified, which has often been _forcibly_ INDENTED
_into the bed beneath it_, sometimes exhibiting slickensides at the
junction. There is evidence of this lower member having been pushed
or dragged over the surface, from higher to lower levels, _in a
plastic condition_; on which account he has named it 'The Trail'."[1]

Now, all these details are incompatible with the idea of ice-action.
What condition of ice can be imagined that would _smash_ rocks, that
would beat them like a maul, that would _indent_ them?

And when we pass from the underlying rocks to the "till" itself, we
find the evidences of tremendous force exerted in the wildest and
most tumultuous manner.

When the clay and stones were being deposited on those crushed and
pounded rocks, they seem to have picked up the _detritus_ of the
earth in great masses, and whirled it wildly in among their own
material, and deposited it in what are called "the intercalated
beds." It would seem as if cyclonic winds had been at work among the
mass. While the "till" itself is devoid of fossils, "the intercalated
beds" often contain them. Whatever was in or on the soil was seized
upon, carried up into the air, then cast down, and mingled among the
"till."

James Geikie says, speaking of these intercalated beds:

"They are twisted, bent, crumpled, and confused _often in the wildest
manner_. Layers of clay, sand, and gravel, which were probably
deposited in a nearly horizontal plane, are puckered into folds and
sharply curved into vertical positions. I have seen whole beds of
sand and clay which had all the appearance of having been pushed
forward bodily for some distance the bedding assuming _the most
fantastic appearance_. . . . The intercalated beds are everywhere cut
through by the overlying 'till,' and

[1. "Journal of the Geological Society and Geological Magazine."]

{p. 54}

large portions have been carried away. . . . They form but a small
fraction of the drift-deposits."[1]

In the accompanying cut we have one of these sand (_s_) and clay
(_c_) patches, embosomed in the "till," _t_1 and _t_2.

###

STRATIFIED BEDS IN TILL, LEITHEN WATER, PEEBLESSHIRE, SCOTLAND.

And again, the same writer says:

"The intercalated beds are remarkable for having yielded an imperfect
skull of the great extinct ox (_Bos primigenius_), and remains of the
Irish elk or deer, and the horse, together with layers of peaty
matter."[2]

Several of our foremost scientists see in the phenomena of the Drift
the evidences of a cataclysm of some sort.

Sir John Lubbock[3] gives the following representation of a section
of the Drift at Joinville, France, containing

###

SECTION AT JOINVILLE.

[1. "The Great Ice Age," p. 149.

2. Ibid., p. 149.

3. "Prehistoric Times," p. 370.]

{p. 55}

an immense sandstone block, eight feet six inches in length, with a
width of two feet eight inches, and a thickness of three feet four
inches.

Discussing the subject, Mr. Lubbock says:

"We must feel that a body of water, with power to move such masses as
these, must have been very different from any floods now occurring in
those valleys, and might well deserve the name of a _cataclysm_. . .
. But a flood which could bring down so great a mass would certainly
have swept away the comparatively light and movable gravel below. We
can not, therefore, account for the phenomena by aqueous action,
because a flood which would deposit the sandstone blocks would remove
the underlying gravel, and a flood which would deposit the gravel
would not remove the blocks. The _Deus ex machinâ_ has not only been
called in most unnecessarily, but when examined turns out to be but
an idol, after all."

Sir John thinks that floating ice might have dropped these blocks;
but then, on the other hand, M. C. d'Orbigny observes that all the
fossils found in these beds belong to fresh-water or land animals.
The sea has had nothing to do with them. And D'Orbigny thinks the
Drift came from cataclysms.

M. Boucher de Perthes, the first and most exhaustive investigator of
these deposits, has always been of opinion that the drift-gravels of
France were deposited by _violent cataclysms_.[1]

This view seems to be confirmed by the fact that the gravel-beds in
which these remains of man and extinct animals are found lie at an
elevation of from eighty to _two hundred feet above the present
water-levels of the valleys_.

Sir John Lubbock says:

"Our second difficulty still remains--namely, the height at which the
upper-level gravels stand above the

[1. "Mém. Soc. d'Em. l'Abbeville," 1861, p. 475.]

{p. 56}

present water-line. We can not wonder that these beds have generally
been attributed to violent cataclysms."[1]

In America, in Britain, and in Europe, the glacial deposits made
clean work of nearly all animal life. The great mammalia, too large
to find shelter in caverns, were some of them utterly swept away,
while others never afterward returned to those regions. In like
manner palæolithic man, man of the rude and unpolished flint
implements, the contemporary of the great mammalia, the mammoth, the
hippopotamus, and the rhinoceros, was also stamped out, and the
cave-deposits of Europe show that there was a long interval before be
reappeared in those regions. The same forces, whatever they were,
which "smashed" and "pounded" and "contorted" the surface of the
earth, crushed man and his gigantic associates out of existence.[2]

But in Siberia, where, as we have seen, some of the large mammalia
were caught and entombed in ice, and preserved even to our own day,
there was no "smashing" and "crushing" of the earth, and many escaped
the snow-sheets, and their posterity survived in that region for long
ages after the Glacial period, and are supposed only to have
disappeared in quite recent times. In fact, within the last two or
three years a Russian exile declared that he had seen a group of
living mammoths in a wild valley in a remote portion of that
wilderness.

These, then, good reader, to recapitulate, are points that seem to be
established:

I. The Drift marked a world-convulsing catastrophe. It was a gigantic
and terrible event. It was something quite out of the ordinary course
of Nature's operations.

II. It was sudden and overwhelming.

[1. "Prehistoric Times," p. 372.

2. "The Great Ice Age," p. 466.]

{p. 57}

III. It fell upon land areas, much like our own in geographical
conformation; a forest-covered, inhabited land; a glorious land,
basking in perpetual summer, in the midst of a golden age.

Let us go a step further.

{p. 58}

CHAPTER VIII.

GREAT HEAT A PREREQUISITE.

Now, it will be observed that the principal theories assigned for the
Drift go upon the hypothesis that it was produced by extraordinary
masses of ice--ice as icebergs, ice as glaciers, or ice in
continental sheets. The scientists admit that immediately preceding
this Glacial age the climate was mild and equable, and these great
formations of ice did not exist. But none of them pretend to say how
the ice came or what caused it. Even Agassiz, the great apostle of
the ice-origin of Drift, is forced to confess:

"We have, as yet, no clew to the source of this great and _sudden_
change of climate. Various suggestions have been made--among others,
that formerly the inclination of the earth's axis was greater, or
that a submersion of the continents under water might have produced a
decided increase of cold; but none of these explanations are
satisfactory, and science has yet to find any cause which accounts
for all the phenomena connected with it."[1]

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