Books: An introduction to the mortuary customs of the North American Indians

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The examples which follow are specially characteristic, some of them
serving to add strength to the theory that mounds were for the most
part used for secondary burial, although intrusions were doubtless
common.

Of the burial mounds of Ohio, Caleb Atwater [Footnote: Trans. Amer.
Antiq. Soc., 1820, i, p. 174 et seq.] gives this description.

"Near the center of the round fort ... was a tumulus of earth about 10
feet in height and several rods in diameter at its base. On its
eastern side, and extending six rods from it, was a semicircular
pavement composed of pebbles such as are now found in the bed of the
Scioto River, from whence they appear to have been brought. The summit
of this tumulus was nearly 30 feet in diameter, and there was a raised
way to it, leading from the east, like a modern turnpike. The summit
was level. The outline of the semicircular pavement and the walk is
still discernible. The earth composing this mound was entirely removed
several years since. The writer was present at its removal and
carefully examined the contents. It contained--

"1st. Two human skeletons lying on what had been the original surface
of the earth.

"2d. A great quantity of arrow-heads, some of which were so large as
to induce a belief that they were used as spear-heads.

"3d. The handle either of a small sword or a large knife, made of an
elk's horn. Around the end where the blade had been inserted was a
ferule of silver, which, though black, was not much injured by time.
Though the handle showed the hole where the blade had been inserted,
yet no iron was found, but an oxyde remained of similar shape and
size.

"4th. Charcoal and wood ashes on which these articles lay, which were
surrounded by several bricks very well burnt. The skeleton appeared to
have been burned in a large and very hot fire, which had almost
consumed the bones of the deceased. This skeleton was deposited a
little to the south of the center of the tumulus; and about 20 feet to
the north of it was another, with which were--

"5th. A large mirrour about 3 feet in breadth and 1-1/2 inches in
thickness This mirrour was of isinglass (_mica membranacea_), and
on it--

"6th. A plate of iron which had become an oxyde, but before it was
disturbed by the spade resembled a plate of cast iron. The mirrour
answered the purpose very well for which it was intended. This
skeleton had also been burned like the former, and lay on charcoal and
a considerable quantity of wood ashes. A part of the mirrour is in my
possession, as well as a piece of brick taken from the spot at the
time. The knife or sword handle was sent to Mr. Peal's Museum at
Philadelphia.

"To the southwest of this tumulus, about 40 rods from it, is another,
more than 90 feet in height, which is shown on the plate representing
these works. It stands on a large hill, which appears to be
artificial. This must have been the common cemetery, as it contains an
immense number of human skeletons of all sizes and ages. The skeletons
are laid horizontally, with their heads generally towards the center
and the feet towards the outside of the tumulus. A considerable part
of this work still stands uninjured, except by time. In it have been
found, besides these skeletons, stone axes and knives and several
ornaments, with holes through them, by means of which, with a cord
passing through these perforations they could be worn by their owners.
On the south side of this tumulus, and not far from it, was a
semicircular fosse, which, when I first saw it, was 6 feet deep. On
opening it was discovered at the bottom a great quantity of human
bones, which I am inclined to believe were the remains of those who
had been slain in some great and destructive battle first, because
they belonged to persons who had attained their full size, whereas in
the mound adjoining were found the skeletons of persons of all ages,
and, secondly, they were here in the utmost confusion, as if buried in
a hurry. May we not conjecture that they belonged to the people who
resided in the town, and who were victorious in the engagement?
Otherwise they would not have been thus honorably buried in the common
cemetery."

CHILLICOTHE MOUND.

"Its perpendicular height was about 15 feet, and the diameter of its
base about 60 feet. It was composed of sand and contained human bones
belonging to skeletons which were buried in different parts of it. It
was not until this pile of earth was removed and the original surface
exposed to view that a probable conjecture of its original design
could be formed. About 20 feet square of the surface had been leveled
and covered with bark. On the center of this lay a human skeleton,
over which had been spread a mat manufactured either from weeds or
bark. On the breast lay what had been a piece of copper, in the form
of a cross, which had now become verdigrise. On the breast also lay a
stone ornament with two perforations, one near each end, through which
passed a string, by means of which it was suspended around the
wearer's neck. On this string, which was made of sinews, and very much
injured by time, were placed a great many heads made of ivory or bone,
for I cannot certainly say which...."

MOUNDS OF STONE.

"Two such mounds have been described already in the county of Perry.
Others have been found in various parts of the country. There is one
at least in the vicinity of Licking River, not many miles from Newark.
There is another on a branch of Hargus's Creek, a few miles to the
northeast of Circleville. There were several not very far from the
town of Chillicothe. If these mounds were sometimes used as cemeteries
of distinguished persons, they were also used as monuments with a view
of perpetuating the recollection of some great transaction or event.
In the former not more generally than one or two skeletons are found;
in the latter none. These mounds are like those of earth, in form of a
cone, composed of small stones on which no marks of tools were
visible. In them some of the most interesting articles are found, such
as urns, ornaments of copper, heads of spears, &c., of the same metal,
as well as medals of copper and pickaxes of horneblende; ... works of
this class, compared with those of earth, are few, and they are none
of them as large as the mounds at Grave Creek, in the town of
Circleville, which belong to the first class. I saw one of these stone
tumuli which had been piled on the surface of the earth on the spot
where three skeletons had been buried in stone coffins, beneath the
surface. It was situated on the western edge of the hill on which the
"walled town" stood, on Paint Creek. The graves appear to have been
dug to about the depth of ours in the present times. After the bottom
and sides were lined with thin flat stones, the corpses were placed in
these graves in an eastern and western direction, and large flat
stones were laid over the graves; then the earth which had been dug
out of the graves was thrown over them. A huge pile of stones was
placed over the whole. It is quite probable, however, that this was a
work of our present race of Indians. Such graves are more common in
Kentucky than Ohio. No article, except the skeletons, was found in
these graves; and the skeletons resembled very much the present race
of Indians."

The mounds of Sterling County, Illinois, are described by W. C.
Holbrook, [Footnote: Amer. Natural, 1877, xi, No. 11, p. 688] as
follows:

"I recently made an, examination of a few of the many Indian mounds
found on Rock River, about two miles above Sterling, Ill. The first
one opened was an oval mound about 20 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 7
feet high. In the interior of this I found a _dolmen_ or
quadrilateral wall about 10 feet long, 4 feet high, and 4-1/2 feet
wide. It had been built of lime-rock from a quarry near by, and was
covered with large flat stones No mortar or cement had been used. The
whole structure rested on the surface of the natural soil, the
interior of which had been scooped out to enlarge the chamber. Inside
of the _dolmen_ I found the partly decayed remains of eight human
skeletons, two very large teeth of an unknown animal, two fossils, one
of which is not found in this place, and a plummet. One of the long
bones had been splintered; the fragments had united, but there
remained large morbid growths of bone (exostosis) in several places.
One of the skulls presented a circular opening about the size of a
silver dime. This perforation had been made during life, for the edges
had commenced to cicatrize. I later examined three circular mounds,
but in them I found no dolmens. The first mound contained three adult
human skeletons, a few fragments of the skeleton of a child, the lower
maxillary of which indicated it to be about six years old. I also
found claws of some carnivorous animal. The surface of the soil had
been scooped out and the bodies laid in the excavation and covered
with about a foot of earth, fires had then been made upon the grave
and the mound afterwards completed. The bones had not been charred. No
charcoal was found among the bones, but occurred in abundance in a
stratum about one foot above them. Two other mounds, examined at the
same time, contained no remains.

"Of two other mounds, opened later, the first was circular, about 4
feet high, and 15 feet in diameter at the base, and was situated on an
elevated point of land close to the bank of the river. From the top of
this mound one might view the country for many miles in almost any
direction. On its summit was an oval altar 6 feet long and 4-1/2 wide.
It was composed of flat pieces of limestone, which had been burned
red, some portions having been almost converted into lime. On and
about this altar I found abundance of charcoal. At the sides of the
altar were fragments of human bones, some of which had been charred.
It was covered by a natural growth of vegetable mold and sod, the
thickness of which was about 10 inches. Large trees had once grown in
this vegetable mold, but their stumps were so decayed I could not tell
with certainty to what species they belonged. Another large mound was
opened which contained nothing."

The next account relates to the grave-mounds near Pensacola, Fla., and
was originally published by Dr. George M. Sternberg, surgeon United
States Army. [Footnote: Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. of Science, 1875, p. 288]

"Before visiting the mound I was informed that the Indians were buried
in it in an upright position, each one with a clay pot on his head.
This idea was based upon some superficial explorations which had been
made from time to time by curiosity hunters. Their excavations had,
indeed, brought to light pots containing fragments of skulls, but not
buried in the position they imagined. Very extensive explorations made
at different times by myself have shown that only fragments of skulls
and of the long bones of the body are to be found in the mound, and
that these are commonly associated with earthen pots, sometimes whole,
but more frequently broken fragments only. In some instances portions
of the skull were placed in a pot, and the long bones were deposited
in its immediate vicinity. Again, the pots would contain only sand,
and fragments of bones would be found near them. The most successful
'find' I made was a whole nest of pots, to the number of half a dozen,
all in a good state of preservation, and buried with a fragment of
skull, which I take from its small size to have been that of a female.
Whether this female was thus distinguished above all others buried in
the mound by the number of pots deposited with her remains because of
her skill in the manufacture of such ware, or by reason of the unusual
wealth of her sorrowing husband, must remain a matter of conjecture. I
found altogether fragments of skulls and thigh-bones belonging to at
least fifty individuals, but in no instance did I find anything like a
complete skeleton. There were no vertebra, no ribs, no pelvic bones,
and none of the small bones of the hands and feet. Two or three skulls
nearly perfect were found, but they were so fragile that it was
impossible to preserve them. In the majority of instances only
fragments of the frontal and parietal bones were found, buried in pots
or in fragments of pots too small to have ever contained a complete
skull. The conclusion was irresistible that this was not a burial-
place for _the bodies_ of deceased Indians, but that the bones
had been gathered from some other locality for burial in this mound,
or that cremation was practiced before burial, and the fragments of
bone not consumed by fire were gathered and deposited in the mound.
That the latter supposition is the correct one I deem probable from
the fact that in digging in the mound evidences of fire are found in
numerous places, but without any regularity as to depth and position.
These evidences consist in strata of from one to four inches in
thickness, in which the sand is of a dark color and has mixed with it
numerous small fragments of charcoal.

"My theory is that the mound was built by gradual accretion in the
following manner. That when a death occurred a funeral pyre was
erected on the mound, upon which the body was placed. That after the
body was consumed, any fragments of bones remaining were gathered,
placed in a pot, and buried, and that the ashes and cinders were
covered by a layer of sand brought from the immediate vicinity for
that purpose. This view is further supported by the fact that only the
shafts of the long bones are found, the expanded extremities, which
would be most easily consumed, having disappeared; also, by the fact
that no bones of children were found. Their bones being smaller, and
containing a less proportion of earthy matter, would be entirely
consumed....

"At the Santa Rosa mound the method of burial was different. Here I
found the skeletons complete, and obtained nine well-preserved
skulls.... The bodies were not apparently deposited upon any regular
system, and I found no objects of interest associated with the
remains. It may be that this was due to the fact that the skeletons
found were those of warriors who had fallen in battle in which they
had sustained a defeat. This view is supported by the fact that they
were all males, and that two of the skulls bore marks of ante-mortem
injuries which must have been of a fatal character."

Writing of the Choctaws, Bartram, [Footnote: Bartram's Travels, 1791,
p. 513.] in alluding to the ossuary or bone-house, mentions that so
soon as this is filled a general inhumation takes place, in this
manner.

"Then the respective coffins are borne by the nearest relatives of the
deceased to the place of interment, where they are all piled one upon
another in the form of a pyramid, and the conical hill of earth heaped
above. The funeral ceremonies are concluded with the solemnization of
a festival called the feast of the dead."

Mr. Florian Gianque, of Cincinnati, Ohio, furnishes an account of a
somewhat curious mound burial which had taken place in the Miami
Valley of Ohio.

"A mound was opened in this locality, some years ago, containing a
central corpse in a sitting posture, and over thirty skeletons buried
around it in a circle, also in a sitting posture but leaning against
one another, tipped over towards the right facing inwards. I did not
see this opened, but have seen the mounds and many ornaments, awls,
&c., said to have been found near the central body. The parties
informing me are trustworthy."

As an example of interment, unique, so far as known, and interesting
as being _sui generis_, the following is presented, with the
statement that the author, Dr J. Mason Spainhour, of Lenoir, N.C.,
bears the reputation of an observer of undoubted integrity, whose
facts as given may not be doubted.

"_Excavation of an Indian mound by J. Mason Spainhour, D.D.S., of
Lenoir, Caldwell County, North Carolina, March 11, 1871, on the farm
of R. V. Michaux, esq., near John's River, in Burke County, North
Carolina_"

"In a conversation with Mr. Michaux on Indian curiosities, he informed
me that there was an Indian mound on his farm which was formerly of
considerable height, but had gradually been plowed down, that several
mounds in the neighborhood had been excavated and nothing of interest
found in them. I asked permission to examine this mound, which was
granted, and upon investigation the following facts were revealed.

"Upon reaching the place, I sharpened a stick 4 or 5 feet in length
and ran it down in the earth at several places, and finally struck a
rock about 18 inches below the surface, which, on digging down, was
found to be smooth on top, lying horizontally upon solid earth, about
18 inches above the bottom of the grave, 18 inches in length, and 16
inches in width, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, with the corners
rounded.

"Not finding anything under this rock, I then made an excavation in
the south of the grave, and soon struck another rock, which upon
examination proved to be in front of the remains of a human skeleton
in a sitting posture. The bones of the fingers of the right hand were
resting on this rock, and on the rock near the hand was a small stone
about 5 inches long, resembling a tomahawk or Indian hatchet. Upon a
further examination many of the bones were found, though in a very
decomposed condition, and upon exposure to the air soon crumbled to
pieces. The heads of the bones, a considerable portion of the skull,
maxillary bones, teeth, neck bones, and the vertebra, were in their
proper places, though the weight of the earth above them had driven
them down, yet the entire frame was so perfect that it was an easy
matter to trace all the bones; the bones of the cranium were slightly
inclined toward the east. Around the neck were found coarse beads that
seemed to be of some hard substance and resembled chalk. A small lump
of red paint about the size of an egg was found near the right side of
this skeleton. The sutures of the cranium indicated the subject to
have been 25 or 28 years of age, and its top rested about 12 inches
below the mark of the plow.

"I made a further excavation toward the west of this grave and found
another skeleton, similar to the first, in a sitting posture, facing
the east. A rock was on the right, on which the bones of the right
hand were resting, and on this rock was a tomahawk which had been
about 7 inches in length, but was broken into two pieces, and was much
better finished than the first. Beads were also around the neck of
this one, but are much smaller and of finer quality than those on the
neck of the first. The material, however, seems to be the same. A much
larger amount of paint was found by the side of this than the first.
The bones indicated a person of large frame, who, I think, was about
50 years of age. Everything about this one had the appearance of
superiority over the first. The top of the skull was about 6 inches
below the mark of the plane.

"I continued the examination, and, after diligent search, found
nothing at the north side of the grave; but, on reaching the east,
found another skeleton, in the same posture as the others, facing the
west. On the right side of this was a rock on which the bones of the
right hand were resting, and on the rock was also a tomahawk, which
had been about 8 inches in length, but was broken into _three_
pieces, and was composed of much better material, and better finished
than the others. Beads were also found on the neck of this, but much
smaller and finer than those of the others. A larger amount of paint
than both of the others was found near this one. The top of the
cranium had been moved by the plow. The bones indicated a person of 40
years of age.

"There was no appearance of hair discovered; besides, the smaller
bones were almost entirely decomposed, and would crumble when taken
from their bed in the earth. These two circumstances, coupled with the
fact that the farm on which this grave was found was the first settled
in that part of the country, the date of the first deed made from Lord
Granville to John Perkins running back about 150 years (the land still
belonging to the descendants of the same family that first occupied
it), would prove beyond doubt that it is a very old grave.

"The grave was situated due east and west, in size about 9 by 6 feet,
the line being distinctly marked by the difference in the color of the
soil. It was dug in rich, black loam, and filled around the bodies
with white or yellow sand, which I suppose was carried from the river-
bank, 200 yards distant. The skeletons approximated the walls of the
grave, and contiguous to them was a dark-colored earth, and so
decidedly different was this from all surrounding it, both in quality
and odor, that the line of the bodies could be readily traced. The
odor of this decomposed earth, which had been flesh, was similar to
clotted blood, and would adhere in lumps when compressed in the hand.

"This was not the grave of the Indian warriors; in those we find pots
made of earth or stone, and all the implements of war, for the warrior
had an idea that after he arose from the dead he would need, in the
'hunting-grounds beyond,' his bow and arrow, war-hatchet, and
scalping-knife.

"The facts set forth will doubtless convince every Mason who will
carefully read the account of this remarkable burial that the American
Indians were in possession of at least some of the mysteries of our
order, and that it was evidently the grave of Masons, and the three
highest officers in a Masonic lodge. The grave was situated due east
and west; an altar was erected in the center; the south, west, and
east were occupied--_the north was not;_ implements of authority
were near each body. The difference in the quality of the beads, the
tomahawks in one, two, and three pieces, and the difference that the
bodies were placed from the surface, indicate beyond doubt that these
three persons had been buried by Masons, and those, too, that
understood what they were doing.

"Will some learned Mason unravel this mystery, and inform the Masonic
world how they obtained so much Masonic information?

"The tomahawks, maxillary bones, some of the teeth, beads, and other
bones, have been forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution at
Washington, D.C., to be placed among the archives of that institution
for exhibition, at which place they may be seen."

If Dr. Spainhour's inferences are incorrect, still there is a
remarkable coincidence of circumstances patent to every Mason.

CAVE BURIAL.

Natural or artificial holes in the ground, caverns, and fissures in
rocks have been used as places of deposit for the dead since the
earliest periods of time, and are used up to the present day by not
only the American Indians, but by peoples noted for their mental
elevation and civilization, our cemeteries furnishing numerous
specimens of artificial or partly artificial caves. As to the motives
which have actuated this mode of burial, a discussion would be out of
place at this time, except as may incidentally relate to our own
Indians, who, so far as can be ascertained, simply adopted caves as
ready and convenient resting places for their deceased relatives and
friends.

In almost every State in the Union burial caves have been discovered,
but as there is more or less of identity between them, a few
illustrations will serve the purpose of calling the attention of
observers to the subject.

While in the Territory of Utah, in 1872, the writer discovered a
natural cave not far from the House Range of mountains, the entrance
to which resembled the shaft of a mine. In this the Gosi-Ute Indians
had deposited their dead, surrounded with different articles, until it
was quite filled up; at least it so appeared from the cursory
examination made, limited time preventing a careful exploration. In
the fall of the same year another cave was heard of, from an Indian
guide, near the Nevada border, in the same Territory, and an attempt
made to explore it, which failed for reasons to be subsequently given.
This Indian, a Gosi-Ute, who was questioned regarding the funeral
ceremonies of his tribe, informed the writer that not far from the
very spot where the party were encamped was a large cave in which he
had himself assisted in placing dead members of his tribe. He
described it in detail and drew a rough diagram of its position and
appearance within. He was asked if an entrance could be effected, and
replied that he thought not, as some years previous his people had
stopped up the narrow entrance to prevent game from seeking a refuge
in its vast vaults, for he asserted that it was so large and extended
so far under ground that no man knew its full extent. In
consideration, however, of a very liberal bribe, after many refusals,
he agreed to act as guide. A rough ride of over an hour and the
desired spot was reached. It was found to be almost upon the apex of a
small mountain apparently of volcanic origin, for the hole which was
pointed out appeared to have been the vent of the crater. This
entrance was irregularly circular in form and descended at an angle.
As the Indian had stated, it was completely stopped up with large
stones and roots of sage brush, and it was only after six hours of
uninterrupted, faithful labor that the attempt to explore was
abandoned. The guide was asked if many bodies were therein, and
replied "Heaps, heaps," moving the hands upwards as far as they could
be stretched. There is no reason to doubt the accuracy of the
information received, as it was voluntarily imparted.

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