Books: Practical Argumentation
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George K. Pattee >> Practical Argumentation
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(2) Mr. Chairman: This bill (H. R. 17019) which I shall ask this House
to pass to-day is one of that general class usually called "private
bills"; and while the usage of this House might catalogue it under
that head, it is in reality a "public bill," because it has to do with
the interests of many people--indeed, an entire city of 75,000
population.
This bill provides that the legal title to a certain tract of land
situated near the city of Tacoma, the title to which is now in the
United States Government, shall be transferred to the city of Tacoma.
However, I wish to assure this House that as a matter of fact the
Government practically loses nothing by the passage of this bill. I
realize that these two statements placed side by side seem to involve
a contradiction. Therefore I will make a brief explanation of this
matter.
Since the year of 1866 the Government has owned a tract of land
adjoining what is now the city of Tacoma; this tract of land contains
637.9 acres. In the year of 1888 the Government gave the city of
Tacoma a right or license to use and occupy this land as a city park,
but retained the legal title in the Government, because it was thought
that at some future time the Government might need to use and occupy
this land for military purposes. Therefore you will observe that the
present condition of the title to this land is that the legal title is
in the Government, with the right in the city to use and occupy the
same. This bill, if it shall pass, will simply reverse and place the
legal title to this land in the city of Tacoma, with the right
remaining in the Government for all time to come to take possession or
use and occupy any or all of this land that it might need for
military, naval, or lighthouse purposes.
I wish to explain briefly to this House why the passage of this bill
and this change in the title is not only fair and just, but the
failure to pass this bill would, in my judgment, be very unfair to the
75,000 people in the city of Tacoma. [Footnote: Speech of Hon. Francis
W. Cushman of Washington, in the House of Representatives, Feb. 28,
1905.]
(3) GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES. [Footnote: A. T.
Hadley, _Economics_, pp. 390-393.]
By far the most important part of consumers' co-operation is
exemplified in government management of industrial enterprises. This
differs in two important particulars from the co-operative agencies
already described. In the first place the choice of managers of a
government business enterprise is connected with the general political
machinery of the country, and regulated by constitutional law instead
of by statutes of incorporation. In the second place, these managers
are likely to fall back on the taxing powers of the Government to make
up any deficit which may arise in the operations of a public business
enterprise; or in the converse case to devote any surplus above
expenses to the relief of tax burdens elsewhere. A government
enterprise is managed by the people who represent, or are supposed to
represent, the consumers; but the good or bad economy of its
management does not necessarily redound to the profit or loss of those
who most use it.
In the beginning of history, the government is the power that controls
the army. When tribes were in a state of warfare with one another
defense against foreign enemies was a matter of primary importance. No
man could let his private convenience stand in the way of effective
military operations. The discipline and subordination necessary to
wage successful war were all-important; and all the powers necessary
to maintain such discipline were entrusted to the leaders of the army.
Somewhat later the military authorities undertook the work of
maintaining discipline in time of peace as well as war, and of
defining and enforcing the rights of members of the tribe against one
another, no less than against foreign enemies. This function was not
accorded to them without a struggle. The priests, under whose tutelage
the religious sanction for tribal customs had grown up, tried to keep
in their own hands the responsibility of upholding these customs and
the physical power connected with it. In some races they succeeded,
but among European peoples the military authorities took the work of
enforcing and defining laws out of the hands of the priests, and made
it a function of the state as distinct from the Church. As security
from foreign enemies increased, this law-making power became more and
more important. The Government was less exclusively identified with
the army, and more occupied with the courts, the legislatures, and the
internal police. Its judicial and legislative functions assumed a
prominence at least as great as its military function.
The growth of private property was also coincident with the
development of these domestic functions of government. In fact, the
two things reinforced one another. The production and accumulation of
capital, to which private property gave so vigorous an impulse, placed
the strong men of the community in a position where they had less to
gain by war and more by peace. It put them on the side of internal
tranquility. It thus made the government more powerful, and this in
turn still further increased the accumulations of capital. But along
with this mutual help, which strong domestic government and strong
property right rendered one another, there was an element of mutual
antagonism. The very fulfillment of those functions which made the
accumulation of capital possible, rendered it impossible for the
government to do its work except at the expense of the capitalists. It
was no longer possible to support armies by booty, or courts by fines
and forfeitures. The expense of maintaining order had to be paid by
its friends instead of by its enemies. The growth of private property
was followed by the development of a system of taxation, which, in
theory at any rate, involved the power to destroy such property.
The existence of such a system of taxation, with the machinery for
collecting money in this way, allows the government more freedom of
industrial action than any private individual can command. It can make
up a deficit by compulsory payments; and this gives it a wider range
of power in deciding what services it will undertake and what prices
it will charge--a power which affords almost unlimited opportunity for
good or bad use, according to the degree of skill and integrity with
which it is exercised.
Every extension of government activity into new fields restricts
private enterprise in two ways: first by limiting the field for
investment of private capital, and second, by possibly, if not
probably, appropriating through taxation a part of the returns from
private enterprise in all other fields. The question whether a
government should manage an industry reduces itself to this: Are the
deficiencies or evils connected with private management such that it
is wise to give government officials the taxing power which
constitutes the distinctive feature of public industrial management?
D. Draw an Introduction to a brief on each of the propositions given
on page 82.
CHAPTER VI
THE DISCUSSION--CONVICTION
It has been seen that one who wishes to establish the truth or the
falsity of a proposition must answer certain vital questions that are
bound to arise in connection with it. Then, as different persons may
answer these questions in different ways, it becomes necessary for him
to convince his audience that his answers are correct. He must always
beware of assertiveness. This defect occurs whenever a speaker or
writer makes a statement but does not establish its truth. As simple
denial is always sufficient answer to mere assertion, an unsupported
statement is worthless. No one can hope to win in debate or change
another's belief unless he can prove that what he says is true; he
must substantiate with proof every statement that he makes, and show
that no possibility for error or deceit can exist. _In argumentation
every statement not commonly accented as true must be proved_.
The following passage is a highly assertive bit of argument; its
worthlessness is apparent.
The decision of Congress to increase still further our already
enormous navy is an injustice to every individual who contributes to
the support of the national government. It is a crime to squander
millions of money on a fleet that we do not need. Our navy to-day is
more than the equal of any foreign armament that floats. Though
second in number of ships, it ranks first in efficiency among all
the navies of the world. No other country can boast of such
marksmanship as our gunners display; no other country can boast of
such armor plate as is to be found on our first-class battleships;
not even England can successfully compete with us in seamanship and
in general efficiency.
Proof is "anything which serves either immediately or mediately to
convince the mind of the truth or the falsehood of a fact or
proposition." [Footnote: On Evidence, Best, p. 45.] Belief in a
specific statement is induced by a presentation of pertinent facts,
and usually by a process of reasoning whereby from the existence of
these known facts, the conclusion, hitherto unaccepted, is reached.
Those facts that have to do with the proposition under discussion are
known as _evidence_. The process of combining facts and deriving
an inference from them is known as _reasoning_. Evidence may be
made up of the testimony of witnesses, the opinion of experts,
knowledge derived from experience, the testimony of documents, or
circumstances that are generally known to have existed. Reasoning is
the process by which men form opinions, render judgments, explain
events, or in any way seek new truths from established facts.
In the following bit of proof, notice the facts that are stated, and
see how, by a process of reasoning, they go to substantiate the idea
that they are intended to prove:--
New York hires two policemen where Nashville hires one, and pays
them double the salary; yet Nashville is as peaceable and orderly as
New York. In Nashville any child of school age can have a seat in the
public schools all through the year; in New York there has been a
shortage of seats for many years. Nashville has a filtered water
supply; New York is going to have one as soon as the $12,000,000
filtration plant can be built at Jerome Park. Street car fares are
five cents in both cities; in Nashville one can always get a seat; in
New York one has to scramble for standing room. The southern city
maintains hospitals, parks, food inspectors, and all other things
common to New York and other large cities. Apparently, Nashville is
giving as much to its inhabitants for six dollars per capita as New
York for thirty-one. These facts can point to but one conclusion--that
Nashville has a superior system of government.
Since the first step in the generation of proof is the discovery of
facts, the arguer should at the very outset become sufficiently
familiar with the various kinds of evidence to estimate the value and
strength of each idea that has a bearing upon the subject.
I. EVIDENCE.
There are two kinds of evidence: (a) direct, and (b) indirect or
circumstantial. If a man sees a gang of strikers set fire to the
buildings of their former employer, his evidence is direct. If,
however, he only sees them stealthily leaving the buildings just
before the fire breaks out, his evidence is indirect. In the latter
case the man's testimony is direct evidence that the men were in the
vicinity of the fire when it started, but it is indirect evidence that
they perpetrated the crime. If a student who has failed to do good
work throughout the term, and who has had little or no opportunity for
special preparation, passes in a perfect paper at the close of an
examination, the presumption is that he has received aid. The evidence
on which this supposition rests is entirely circumstantial. But if
some one saw the student obtaining aid, that fact would be direct
evidence against him.
Direct evidence, as a rule, is considered more valuable than indirect,
but each kind is frequently sufficient to induce belief. The best
possible kind of evidence, the kind that is least liable to contain
error or falsehood, is a combination of both direct and indirect.
Either one by itself may be untrustworthy. The unreliability of
evidence given by eyewitnesses is shown by the conflicting stories
they frequently tell concerning the same incident even when they are
honestly attempting to relate the facts as they occurred. Also, it is
always possible that the inferences drawn from a combination of
circumstances may be entirely wrong. When, however, both kinds of
evidence are available, each confirming the other and leading up to
the same conclusion, then the possibility of error is reduced to a
minimum.
The opportunity of the college student for obtaining evidence in his
argumentative work is limited. A lawyer before entering upon an
important case often spends weeks and months in investigation;
scientists sometimes devote a whole lifetime in trying to establish a
single hypothesis. But the college student in preparing an argument
must obtain his evidence in a few days. There are several sources at
his disposal. The first available source is his fund of general
knowledge and experience. If a man can establish a statement by saying
that he personally knows it to be true, he has valuable proof. Then
the people with whom the student comes in contact constitute another
source of evidence. Anyone who can give information on a subject that
is being investigated is a valuable witness. Especially in discussions
on questions which pertain to college life, the opinions and
experiences of college men and of prominent educators are unsurpassed
as evidence. But the greatest source of evidence for the student of
argumentation is the library. Here he may consult the best thought of
all time in every branch of activity. He may review the opinions of
statesmen, economists, educators, and scientists, and introduce as
evidence their experiences and the results of their investigations.
Here he may familiarize himself with the current events of the world,
and draw his own conclusions as to their significance. In fact, a well
equipped library treats of all subjects, however broad or narrow they
may be, and furnishes evidence for all sorts of debatable questions.
As not all evidence is equally valuable, a large part of the work of
argumentation consists in applying tests to the evidence at hand for
the sake of determining what facts are irrefutable, what are doubtful,
and what are worthless. Moreover, one engaged in argumentation must
test not only his own evidence but also that of the other side. No
better method of refuting an opponent's argument exists than to show
that the facts on which it rests are untrustworthy. Tests of evidence
may be divided into two classes: tests of the source from which it
comes, and tests of the quality of the evidence itself.
A. TESTS OF THE SOURCE OF EVIDENCE.
Since in courts of law, in college debate, and in all kinds of
argumentation, facts are established by the testimony of witnesses,
the sources of evidence are the witnesses who give it. The debater and
the argumentative writer have not the opportunity, as has the lawyer,
of producing the witnesses and permitting them to tell their own
stories to the audience. He must himself relate the evidence; and, in
order that it may be believed, he must tell whence it comes. The
sources of evidence may be common rumor, newspapers, magazines,
official documents, private citizens, or public officials. The extent
to which these witnesses are accepted as trustworthy by the people
before whom they are quoted determines in a large measure whether or
not the evidence will be believed. Tests for determining the
trustworthiness of witnesses will next be given.
The first test of the source of evidence should be:--
(1) _Is the witness competent to give a trustworthy account of the
matter under consideration?_
To answer this question, first determine whether the facts to be
established are such that any ordinary person can speak concerning
them with reasonable accuracy, or whether they can be understood only
by persons who have received special training. A landsman could well
testify that a naval battle had occurred, but only a man with nautical
training could accurately describe the maneuvers of the ships and tell
just how the engagement progressed. A coal heaver's description of a
surgical operation would establish nothing, except perhaps the
identity of the people and a few other general matters; only a person
with a medical education could accurately describe the procedure. The
testimony of any one but a naturalist would not even tend to prove the
existence of an hitherto unknown species of animal life. A witness
without technical knowledge cannot give reliable evidence on matters
of a technical nature.
Then, if it is found that the witness does possess the necessary
technical training, or that no previous training is necessary, still
further test his ability to give reliable evidence by asking whether
he has had ample opportunity for investigating the facts to the
existence of which he testifies. For even a skilled player sitting in
the first base bleachers at a baseball game to criticise an umpire's
decisions on balls and strikes is absurd; the opinion of a transient
visitor to Panama on the methods used in digging the canal is not
valuable; a traveler who has spent a single month in Japan cannot draw
reliable conclusions on the merits and defects of its political
structure. In not one of these cases has the opportunity for
investigation been sufficient to render the witness able to give
reliable evidence.
A current magazine in discussing the weakness of testimony that comes
from incompetent witnesses says:--
Generalizations about the tastes and interests of the age are so
easy that all except the most wary fall into them, and the world is
full of off-hand opinions touching the condition of society and the
state of the world, which are far more conspicuous for courage than
for discretion. There are very few men or women in any particular
period who know it intimately enough, and with sufficient insight and
sympathy, to pass judgment upon it. One hears almost every day
sweeping judgments about Americans, English, French, Germans, Chinese,
and Japanese which are entirely valueless, unless they are based on a
very broad and intimate knowledge of these various peoples, a
knowledge which, in the nature of things, few people possess. The
charming American girl who declared that, since gloves are cheaper in
Paris, American civilization is a failure, may stand for a type of
interesting and piquant oracles, to be heard with attention, but under
no circumstances to be followed. Americans are so familiar with the
European traveler who arrives and makes up his opinion over night in
regard to men, morals, and manners in the Western world and have so
often been the victim of this self-confident critic, that they ought
not to repeat the same blunder in dealing with other peoples.
[Footnote: The Outlook, July 20, 1907.]
In the court room, where witnesses are present and can be carefully
examined by the lawyers on both sides, it is customary to apply both
mental and physical tests. The witness who testifies to knowledge of
some event that occurred a long time before is given a memory test;
the senses, also, through which occurrences are perceived are
frequently examined. But as writers and debaters in general seldom
have the opportunity to apply tests of this sort to their sources of
information, and as these tests are seldom important outside of the
law courts, they are not taken up in detail in this book.
The second test of the source of evidence should be:--
(2) _Is the witness willing to give an accurate account of the
matter?_
One important influence that may cause a witness to give false
evidence is _self-interest_. Not only individuals, but social and
industrial organizations, political parties, communities, and states
are frequently swayed by this emotion to the extent of deliberately
perverting the truth. The evidence found in newspapers and other
publications is often false, or at least misleading, because it has
been tampered with by those who put their selfish interests before all
else. The owner of an industry protected by a high tariff would
scarcely be considered a reliable witness in matters affecting tariff
reform. The opinion of a railroad magnate on the subject of a
compulsory two-cent rate law would not be considered as unbiased. No
disinterested seeker after truth would accept the political
conclusions of a newspaper owned by a politician or recognized as the
organ of a certain party. In all such cases, self-interest may prompt
the witness to make statements not in strict accordance with the
truth. Perjury in the court room is not uncommon; falsehood elsewhere
must be guarded against. The arguer should always carefully scrutinize
the testimony of a witness that has any special interest in the matter
for which evidence is being sought. Though the self-interest is
strong, the witness may be willing to state the matter accurately;
but, as long as human nature remains as it is, this willingness
should not be taken for granted.
The third test of the source of evidence should be:--
(3) _Is the witness prejudiced?_
Another emotion that frequently keeps a witness from telling the exact
truth is _prejudice_. Every one is familiar with instances of how
this passion warps men's morals and corrupts their judgment. If a man
is prejudiced for or against a person or a system, he cannot be
accepted as a trustworthy witness in matters where his prejudice comes
into play. Should an economist known to favor socialism write a
treatise advocating municipal ownership of public utilities, his
evidence and his reasoning would not be convincing; it would be taken
for granted that he looked at the subject through socialistic
spectacles. A person who sets out with the expectation and intention
of finding flaws in anything usually succeeds. Though he is willing to
tell the exact truth, yet because of his prejudice he is sure to see
only that which will coincide with his preconceived opinions. For this
reason, political speeches and intensely partisan books and papers are
invariably unreliable sources of evidence even though they are not
intentionally dishonest.
The fourth test of the source of evidence is:--
(4) _Does the witness have a good reputation for honesty and
accuracy?_
The human conscience is so constituted that many people deviate from
the truth for no apparent reason whatever. Some are given to
exaggeration; some habitually pretend to know that of which they are
entirely ignorant; others are so inaccurate that everything they say
is open to grave suspicion. If a witness is known to have been
repeatedly dishonest or inaccurate in the past, little reliance should
be placed in his testimony. "Yellow journalism," which is largely the
reflection of common rumor, affords constant examples of witnesses
that give questionable evidence.
Ability and willingness to give exact evidence, an unprejudiced
attitude, and a good reputation for honesty and accuracy are the
qualities that should characterize the sources of evidence. If a
writer or speaker is securing testimony from friends or acquaintances,
the application of these tests is not difficult. If, however, the
sources are books and periodicals, his work is harder; but to be
successful, he must not shirk it. When one procures evidence from
books, he should investigate the character and standing of the author.
When one obtains it from signed articles in papers and magazines, he
must consider both the author and the character of the publication. In
the case of newspaper "stories" and editorials, one should find out on
what general policy and principles the paper is conducted. A cautious
arguer will always avoid, as far as he can, the use of evidence that
comes from a doubtful source. If one finds that an opponent has used
the testimony of questionable witnesses, he can, by exposing the fact,
easily refute the argument.
NECESSITY OF STATING SOURCES. It sometimes happens that an arguer
fails to state the source of his evidence. This omission is usually
fatal to success. No one is likely to put much confidence in
statements that are introduced by such flimsy preambles as, "A certain
statesman has declared"; "I have read somewhere"; "An acquaintance
told me." Not only must evidence come from sources that seem good to
the writer, but those sources must be satisfactory to the audience. In
the last analysis the audience is the judge of what is credible and
what is not. Moreover, if the evidence is of great importance, or is
liable to be disputed, the arguer should show in a few words why the
witness is especially reliable.
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